.cw 11 Morph2.txt Announcements--four copies of Files in library new homework assignment distributed on Friday Las time--morpheme problemati morpheme (cran-) affixatio proces ses starte talkin abou gram categories noun vs verbs Nex more on grammatical categories. But first: usefu notion stem wha a affi attache t o in stem ca b boun o free mos ar free example o boun stems: berry words: Mor o "stem" sometime tal abou mor tha on "stem" i tha case ther i a underlyin root tha th ste i de rive from Navajo--morpholog o ver consist o severa prefixe adde t stem choic o prefixe depend o ho ste itsel i derived from root: 'a\a\h Impf. stem 'extend, reach' 'a\a\d Pf stem 'a\a\l/ Future stem 'a\a\h Op. stem woul sa ther i a underlyin roo /'a\a\/ t whic suffixe - Impf an Op. - Pf. an -l Fut ar added The prefixe ar adde t thes derive stems: eg., 'ahi,honeesh'a\a\ 's/h level i [eg. lan area off--make it level equal' Typically thing tha affixe ar adde t i languag ar stem whic belon t majo grammatica categor o th language Above Navaj stem ar potentia verbs No mor o lexica cate gories: 3. Major lexical/grammatical categories: def lexical lexica categor 'par o speech' wil defin her som o th majo 'part o speech i English prob familia wit thes terms word i thes categorie shar certai propertie wit othe member o sam categor noun--include name fo specifi thing ('prope names' Ruth Seattle th Universit o Washington) name fo classe o object ('commo nouns' cat sparrow house swimming justice) verb--actions events relation betwee entitie (think experience kick like) nee fo mor precis definitions 'swimming i a action a i Joh i swimming wh cal i nou i Swimmin i fun Some grammatical difs. between nouns, verbs: nouns (most ca b modifie b demonstrative (this that these those etc.) quantifier (many some few all etc.) arti cle (a/an the): thi swimmin ever da get prett boring *Joh i thi swim ming nouns can be possessed: John' swimmin ever da i grea idea *Joh i hi swimming. nouns can be pluralized: Th portrai wa complete i man sittings *Joh i man sit tings. verbs o th othe hand ca underg certai processe tha noun don't: Whe subjec o ver i thir perso (no I we o you) ver mus hav suffi - i presen tense: Joh understands noun don' tak thi suffi (cf thir perso possessor John' ha o John' hats - i las for understoo a plural) Verb hav specia form use i pas tense noun don't: Joh understoo wha w wer doing (n specia for o Joh use i pas tense) Subclas o noun i pronouns word lik I me you they them etc Ar noun i tha the occu i th sam place i sentence tha noun do bu can' posses pronoun *hi (bu pronoun ca b pos sessors m cat) can' modif pronoun wit demonstrative *thi (cf Thi Joh like t g skating.) digression fre o boun morpheme a exampl fro Navajo pronomi na prefixes: morpheme fo 'my' 'his etc ar prenomina prefixes no separ at words list: 1s shi- 2s ni- 3s yi-/bi- 1,2d nihi- etc. shima, 'my mother' independent word -ma, sha,di, 'my older sister' independent word -a,di, ho d w kno this I wor t whic prefi attache begin wit vowe (no glotta stop) vowe o prefi i deleted (simila proces i French. Prefi fuse wit wor whic i modifies Thi proces doe no happe (i Navajo acros words. back to more lexical categories: adjective--modifies qualifies o restrict meanin o ref erenc o nouns examples red re sweate vs sweater swim ming swimmin snak vs snake a unjus societ vs society adjective ca themselve b modifie b word lik too so really sor of etc (intensifiers) one- an two-syllabl adjective ma hav compariso form forme b addin -e o modifyin adjectiv wit more happier ?mor happy bu mor beautiful/*beautifuller similarly ca hav superlativ form happiest mos beautifu /*beau tifullest adverb--lik adjectives adverb modif meaning o word o othe lexica categories i thi case verbs adjective o othe adverbs adverb tha modif verbs carefull loade th gun quickl finishe th exam easil wo th game adverb tha modif adjectives intensifier again so too quite rathe happ (intensifier can' modif nouns bu ma hav relate adjectiv tha ca modif nouns *s stor (bu suc story) *quit stor (quit story) *to stor (to muc o story)--unusua constructions adjectiv goe outsid o article adverb ca themselve b modifie b intensive-typ adverbs to quickly s carefully quit hopefull als sentenc adverb (a oppose t adverb tha modif jus verbs): John won't have to read everything. Hopefully Joh won' hav t rea everything means I hope, it is hoped that John won't have to read everything. John won't have to read everything carefully. means John won't have to read everything in a careful manner. will say more about types of adverbs in syntax mos imporan dif betwee adjectives adverbs adjs ca modif nouns bu adverb can't a eas win, *a easily win; an unpleasant finish, *an unpleasantly finish advs ca modif verbs bu adjs can't easil won, *eas won; unpleasantly finished, *unpleasant finished som adjectives adverb ar homonymous hard goo (i dialect where good can be adverb instead of well) This is a good car. This is hard work. Adjectives normally don't occur at end of sentence, after verb: *The car runs oil-burning. This is an oil-burning car. But following are adverbs: The car runs good now. John works too hard. Bu notic tha whil goodAdv Adj hav sam meaning hardadv adj don't. So need to be careful to distinguish adverbs, adjectives. preposition--typicall indicat directions locations instrumental relations: times/locations to from at by under, in, during instrumenta functions with stabbe hi wit knif on dif betwee prepositions othe lexica categorie mentione i Ak. preps ca b modifie b righ ('exactly'): right down the center right during the football game right up the middle but instrumentals can't be modified by right? I stabbed him right with a knife but notice comitative with can be modified with right: I went right along with their plan. Englis use prepositions s calle becaus th prepositio precede th nou tha i modifies eg. wit knife I othe languages th orde o th prepositio an nou i reversed i thes languages postpositions modifie nou precede th directional/locationa word Eg Navajo: shi-ghan bi-ch'i`\' yisha,a,l/ my home it to I am walking shi,-la' ba\a\h my finger on Other, minor lexical classes, such as conjunctions: and, or, but, while, as/like (Winston billboard) Thes conjoi o mor member o sam lexica class Joh an Susan swimmin o running Joh hate t run bu lik to Winsto tastes good, like a cigarette should. Muc mor o lexica categorie i syntax bu introduce her becaus important in morphology too. Open vs. closed classes of morphemes Som lexica categorie hav mor member tha others Word freel adde t certai classes nouns verbs adjectives adverbs Thes ar 'open classe o morphemes Othe classe muc smaller e.g. prepositions pronouns conjunc tions ne word no ofte adde t suc sets On ne pronou pos sibl bein added sex-neutra thir perso singula for "they" (Tha is semantic o "they i changin t includ singula bu unspecifie sex. Anecdot abou askin frien o min t party H sai h woul b bringin someone unspecifie sex wa curiou abou se o thi person di h finall hav girlfriend Nigh o party h cam alone aske wher hi frien was hi reply the couldn' come. Ope classe ar typicall "content word o morphemes Close classe typicall "grammatical o "function morphemes Suc mor pheme hav grammatica functions no clea meanings A example brother 'olde sibling vs and (conjoin categories) Grammatical category-changing morphemes Som morpheme chang lexica categor o wor the attac to other don't Significan tha n morpheme i Englis tha for ne word i close classes--tha is n wor formatio rule for word belongin t clas o conjunctions prepositions pronouns Som exam ple o category-changin morpheme i English: suffixes already mentioned: -ant [ V N __ Adj (attache t verbs nouns derive ne adjectives) meanin change 'havin N V-ing import importan (i importan derive fro nou o verb?) please pleasant expect expectant; err, errant -able [ V __ Adj (attache t verbs create ne adjective meanin change 'capabl o bein V'd hug--huggable love--lovable read--readable -ful [ N __ Adj (attache t nouns derive adjec tives meaning 'havin abundan characteristic o qualit o N' faith--faithful help--helpful truth--truthful also -y [ N __ Adj (attache t nouns derive adjec tives meaning 'havin characteristic o N' syrup--syrupy juice--juicy taste--tasty maple--maply dimple--dimply apple--appley -less [ N __ Adj (sam categor chang a fo -y meaning 'lackin N joy--joyless hope--hopeless faith--faithless help--helpless -ness [ Adj __ N (attache t adjectives derive nouns) kind--kindness happy--happiness -en [ Adj __ V (attache t adjectives derive verb meanin 'caus t becom Adj') black--blacken sad--sadden flat--flatten red--redden light--lighten short--shorten sharp--sharpen -ly [ Adj __ Adv (attache t adjectives derive adverbs) hopeful--hopefully kind--kindly thankful--thankfully new--newly boyish--boyishly mos category-changin affixe i Englis ar suffixes bu on prefi tha change lexica categor i en- en-: [V ___ [Adj, N ]] mean "caus t becom Adj N o "t pu i N t caus t b i N" nouns embody engulf enslave enisle adjectives enrich enlarge enlighten embolden some morphemes don't change lexical category un- negative onl attache t adjectives derive other adjectives unclean unfaithful unkind unlawful uncertain unbalanced unhappy ungrateful unable unenamored uncivil unexcited un- reverse: attaches to verbs, deriving verbs undo unfasten undress unhook unwind unzip unbutton unwrap ?untrash re- again: attaches to verbs redo remake replan reheat ?renew recheck reboard reregister rewrite retype Problems ca thin o man exception t thes affixatio rules Negativ un- again un- freel adde t adjective derive fro verb wit -ed: unenlightened unblemished uninformed unauthorized undistinguished unsimplified Bu ther ar man adjective tha un- negativ can' b adde to: *unfunny *unbrave *unstrange *unbad *unweird *ungood Wh not N goo reaso fo mos o these Hav t sa productivity o negativ un- i limite unles un- attache t adjective derive fro verbs Also som mino exception t wha un- ca attac to: untruth, but cf. untrue unemployment, but cf. unemployed un- ca apparentl attac t som noun (above) bu generall can't: *unbook *unbike *unroom but Uncola Probabl hav t conclud tha prefixatio o un- t adjective i no totall productive--ther ar exception t th negativ un- affixatio rule Similarly -an i Englis no productive--ca thin o man verb can't add -ant to: John pleases me--John is pleasant. John disturbs me--*John is disturbant (would use disturbing). John expects a lot--John is very expectant. John hopes for a lot--John is very hopeant. Etymolog o word wit -ant Englis borrowe certai word endin i -an fro French i French -an form presen particpl o verb (lik -in i English) can be used adjectivally: une pie`ce inte,ressante ca b use a complemen t verb I re,pondi e montran so fre`re etc. (other languages have affixes that change category) Unproductiv rule fo formin word proble i morphology exis tenc o word wit comple interna structure word whic speaker fee ar clearl relate t eac other--d w ignor comple word i rule fo formin the no productive No easy answers... 4. Hierarchical structure of words i firs par o course w sai on characteristi o huma languag tha distinguishe i fro chim languag o othe anima communicatio system wa structure-dependence languag i hierarchi cally a wel a linearl (temporally) organized som adjacen (o sometime non-adjacent unit belon together ambiguity--mor tha on meaning--provide goo argumen fo hierarchica structure a w wil se i syntax bu ambiguou words als fac tha languag ha hierarchica structure. goo discussio o thi i Files w kno tha som affixe chang grammatica categor o wha the attac to bu som don't conside word wit mor tha on category- changing affix: slave enslavable What is structure of enslavable? w kno tha -abl generall onl attache t transitiv verbs formin derive adjectives: verb adj noun storeable whitenable *whiteable *whitenessable also know that en- only attaches to nouns, adjectives can't add -able first to slave: *slaveable -abl doesn' attac t nouns hav t ad en- firs t noun derivin verb; then -able to verb: Adj V N en slave able ho abou structur o reenslaveable re- verbal no adjectiva o nominal, prefix: reredden, *rered, *reredness: .cp 9 Adj V V N re en slave able ho abou reenslavability -it (limite productivity derive noun fro adjectives N Adj V V N re en slave able ity s restriction o combinin propertie o affixe indicat tha language is hierarchically organized ca b furthe illustrate wit ambiguou words untieable unlockable, etc. (Files) 2 un- prefixes in English: un- reverse (attaches to verbs): undo, undress, untie un- negative (attaches to adjectives): unhappy, unpleasant, un notice that untieable has 2 meanings: capable of being untied: that knot is untieable no capabl o bein tied tha rop i untieabl (stres difference?) accordingly, untieable has 2 derivations: Adj Adj un Adj V -able Verb -able un V tie tie i first un- (neg attache t derive adjectiv tieable i 2n derivation un- (rev attache t basi ver tie. ambiguou word ca als aris fro multipl interpretation o phoneti sequences: single unit or more than one unit? Basque--lg. isolate, spoken in France, Spain [zioten (1 'the ha i fo him o (2 'h ha i fo them' verba morphology sequenc [ote ca b analyze a (1 sequenc o affixe o (2 on affix (1) z -i -o -te -n 3-Sub root 3sg-Dat 3pl-Sub past (2) z -i -ote -n 3s-Sub root 3pl-Dat past (1 [ote ca b eithe sequenc o affixes i whic [o indicate agreemen wit 3 dativ argumen an [te agree wit 2n o 3r persona plura subject o (2 singl affi [ote] agreein wit thir plura dativ argument knowledg o structur o sentenc disambiguates word. s morpholog indicate tha languag i hierarchicall organized woul predic tha chimp woul no ge ambiguit o word lik "untieable" (some humans don't!) 5 Inflectional vs. derivational morphemes a often-mad distinctio betwee type o morpheme i Linguis tics bu difficul t defin differenc i accurat way inflectional--typicall boun grammatica suffixe lik - (pl) - (3 subjec o verbs) -e (pas tens o verbs) -ing (presen participl o verbs) -e (comparativ for o adjectives tha indi cat certai grammatica functions derivation--typicall morpheme tha ad som lexical referentia meaning lik diminutiv -ling goose gosling earth earthling under underling putative differences between infl., derivational morphology --change lexical category? inflectiona affixe neve do derivationa ofte (bu no always negativ un- ex- do derivationa ofte creat ne member o lexica categorie tha othe affixe ca attac to inflectiona attac t existin part o speech. --ad lexica (a oppose t grammatical meaning? derivationa do lik 'negative o 'capabl o bein V'd o 'little' inflectiona don't typicall hav grammatica o syntacti functions mar relation betwee word i sentence--eg. Spanis agreemen betwee noun an adjectives las floras amarillas: amarill-a-s los nin~os simpa,icos: simp,tic-o-s also, Englis 3 -s Joh like Susan vs. John and Susan like Bill --order with respect to other morphemes? i multipl affixatio o morphologica processes inflec tiona morpheme usu outsid othe morphemes Englis 3 - alway outsid o suffixe tha deriv verb fro othe categories: -en: John enlightens me -ize: John sermonizes too much -ate: John vaccinates his cat usu bu no alway tru (counter-example i language lik Navajo) inflectional affixes usually arranged in paradigms: Spanish comprar 'to buy' verbal paradigms: conjugation past imperfect (kind of time category); explain person categories 1s compraba 2s comprabas 3s compraba 1p compra,bamos 2p comprabais 3p compraban infinitive ste i comp - (them vowel - (infinitive) past imperfect: stem -theme vowel -past imperf. -person/number comp - -b -0/ s 0/ mos is (paradig part) sometime n one-to-on relatio betwee meaning--phoneti for (prob le wit morphem a all-encompassin notio i morphology) i Spa nish mar o person/numbe varie accordin t tense compar presen indicativ, preterite paradigms: present indicative preterite 1s compro compre, 2s compras compraste 3s compra compro, 1p compramos compramos 2p compra,is comprasteis 3p compran compraron person/number endings: pres.ind. pret. past imperf. 1s o e, 0/ 2s s ste s 3s 0/ o, 0/ 1p mos mos mos 2p is steis is 3p n ron n Can' sa ther i a unvaryin phoneti for fo firs perso singu lar unlik 1p--depend o tense/aspec category Ca w generaliz abou secon perso singula -s perhap sa - adde i al tenses - t adde onl t secon perso form i preterite O shoul w sa that second person singular is -s; -ste in preterite? morphemic analysis: -s 2s or -s 2s -te 2s pret -ste 2s pret. (E.C. predicts latter analysis) Another kind of paradigm: nominal paradigms: inflection Finnish 'continent' nom sg mantere gen sg mantereen partitive sg manteretta essive sg mantereena illative sg mantereeseen partitive pl mantereita illative pl mantereisiin genitive pl mantereiden ste mantere suffixe fo eac case case relatio o nou i sentenc t ver o othe nouns Eg. ge possesso (o som othe noun) no typicall subjec o verb partitiv referenc t onl part of some whole (1/2 c. of milk) other parts of speech can have paradigms: comparative forms of adjectives: happy, happier, happiest summarize difs, infl. vs. deriv.: derivational add non-grammatica meaning frequentl change par o speech--forms a new base that can be used in sentence inflectional morpholog tha relate word i sentence syntac ticall o grammaticall relevan morphology 6. Morphological processes--a survey of morphology in languages not all morphology is affixational; also processes --affixation (already illustrated) bu no alway eas t tel infixatio from prefixation. Latin: Imperfective Past participle 'allow' sin- si-t roo i /si/- withou fina consonant Look lik imperfectiv ste derive b suffixin nasal pas participl derive b suffixin -t Bu othe dat indicat tha - i nasa infixe int root /rup/ /reliqu/: 'break' rump- rup-t- 'leave behind' relinqu- relic-t- ( < reliqu-t) S i som forms nasa mus b infixed i othe forms mus b suffixed Other processes: --compounding: putting 2 stems together: English examples rightmos elemen o compoun determine categor o resultin compound: Noun+noun computer terminal (notice spelling: spaces, no) living room spaces, hyphens) schoolteacher tongue-lashing sunshine bull's-eye Adj+noun sharpshooter Verb+Noun swearword smallpox rattlesnake junior high whetstone Prep+noun overdose underdog outbuilding uptown inland afterthought onlooker Adjectival compounds: Noun+Adj headstrong Adj+Adj icy cold skin-deep worldly-wise nationwide easygoing mind-boggling widespread heartbroken hardworking Prep+Adj overwide underripe ingrown above-mentioned under-signed (but no V+Adj compounds) Verbal compounds Prep+V outlive overdo underfeed offset uproot overstep (no N+V, A+V, V+V compounds) Compound ca b ambiguous structur disambiguate (furthe suppor for hierarchical nature of language) Spanish language teacher or Spanish American language teacher Other types of morphological processes --reduplication par o ste i copie an attache t ste (cf itty-bitty teeny- weeny) parameters: --reduplicatio use t for variet o categories --amount of material copied varies from language to language --whether end or beginning of stem is copied examples: Warlpiri forms plurals of nouns by copying entire stem: kurdu--kurdukurdu 'child, children' kamina--kaminakamina 'girl, girls' mardukuja--mardukujamardukujamardukuja 'women, females' more typically, only portion of stem is copied: Quileute copies first CV to form plurals: ci:pho,kwat'--cici:pho,kwat' 'Negro, Negroes' qa:X--qaqa:X 'bone, bones' Agt (Phillippines? copie firs CV o ste t for plurals collectives: bari 'body' barbari-k kid-in 'my whole body' mag-saddu 'leak (verb)' mag-sadsaddu 'leak in many places' na-wakay 'lost' na-wakwakay 'many things lost' takki 'leg' taktakki 'legs' Chukchee (Siberia) copies first CVC to the right: jil?e- 'gopher' jil?e-jil 'abs. singular' nute- 'earth, ground' nute-nut 'abs. singular' Madures (Indonesia copie las CV t th left: bu,wa,q 'fruit' wa,q-bu,wa,qa,n sometime par o wha i reduplicate i predetermine b morphology Aka copie initia C o verb t for 'multipl activity o 'multipl state form o verbs o cop i alway highe versio o th firs ste vowel: se? 'say' sise? sO? 'light' sisO? Yorub form noun fro verb b prefixin C reduplicatio skeleto whos i fixe t [i]: lo. 'to go' li,lo. 'going' du`n 'to be tasty, sweet' di,du`n 'tastiness, sweetness' man othe language us reduplication wil loo int reduplicatio again next week --Discontinuou morphemes Semiti typ patterns i Semitic othe relate languages pattern o consonant an vowel deter min morphologica composition Arabic stems--data Perfective Imperfective Participle Binyan Active Passive Active Passive Active Passive II kattab kuttib ukattib ukattab mukattib mukattab cause to 'wrote' 'be written' 'writing' be being written' write III kaatab kuutib ukaatib ukaatab mukaatib mukaatab corres- pond IV ?aktab ?uktib u?aktib u?aktab mu?aktib mu?aktab 'cause to write' ... analysis: different kinds of morphemes interacting with each other all forms in chart have /ktb/ in that order. root for 'write' is {ktb} 2nd binyan, root consonants {ktb} arrayed in pattern CVCCVC. 3r binyan roo consonant hav patter CVVCVC--othe segment i som columns 4th binyan, all forms have at least pattern ?VCCVC columns: vowels predictable. perfective active, all vowels are [a] perfective passive, vowels are [u i] imperfectiv active al form contai prefi u- othe vowel specified as [a i]. imperfective passive, vowel pattern is [u a] active participle, prefix mu-, vowels [a i] passive participle, prefix mu-, vowels [a a] morphemes: summary: 'write' -- {ktb} 'cause to V' --- CVCCVC 'cause to V' --- ?VCCVC 'V reciprocally' --- CVVCVC 'active perfective' {a} 'passive perfective' {ui} 'impf. active' prefix u-, {a} etc. morphem fo 'write i discontinuous--broke u b vowe inserte t mar inflectiona categorie (active/passiv impf./pftv. participles) thu inflectiona morpheme ar als discontinuous note affixation in addition to vowel and consonant patterns read Gleason for more information about Semitic morphology --morpheme-interna changes--internal modification of stem --ablaut--change in stem vowel: English: sing--sang--sung ring--rang--rung others? German: present past indic. past subj. 'carry' trag- trug- tru"g- 'come' komm- kam- ka"m- 'sit' sitz- sass- sa"ss- 'lose' verlier- verlor- verlo"r- (past subj. derived from past indic. via umlaut) Maricopa vowe lengthenin use t mar variou morphologi ca categories (sometimes also a change in vowel quality) plural forms of nouns xumar xuma:r 'children' nchen nchi:n 'older sibling' causative xot' 'be good' txu:t' 'make good' plural action verb otox 'gamble' u:shtu:x 'be a gambler' u:kwer 'hunt' u:shkwi:r 'be a hunter' --consonant changes (will illustrate in phonology) --suppletion--not even unproductive word formation rules be, am, are, is, were go, went irregular plurals: ox--oxen child--children mouse--mice goose--geese cactus-- cacti Not o morphologica typology--cf fil 56 language ca b classi fie i severa ways history geography als o basi o interna structure--suc a morphologica structure language typicall divide int majo classes isolatin o analy tic an synthetic severa majo subtype o synthetic--agglutinatin especiall common/important --isolatin (analytic)--n o littl affixatio word morpheme usua exampl i Chinese n morpholog excep on suffix diminutiv -r an compound (bu compound ar combination o stems sor o analytic) --synthetic--wor ma b compose o on o mor boun morpheme attached to stem or free morpheme --agglutinating--morpheme joine togethe i wa tha make morpholog transparent morpheme eas t recognize examples Swahil an othe Bant languages Hungaria an othe Finno-Ugri languages --fusional--affixe adde t ste bu ofte don' hav singl meanin associate wit singl morphem (cf Span exampl above) Indo-Europea language typical o morphem boundarie no easil recognize becaus o change i phonetic form that take place across morphemes --polysynthetic--incorporation 7. How new words enter language--examples from Navajo --borrowing: Nav. Span./Eng. be,eso peso 'money' Bilaga,ana Americano 'white man' ge,eso queso 'cheese' ke,shmish Christmas do,ola toro 'bull' Soole,i, Salt Lake City mandagi,iya mantequilla 'butter' gohwe,e,h cafe, 'coffee' --exploitation of native processes