.sr 5
.cw 11
Navajo morphology and phonology

what I want to do today:

introduce the Navajo language
describ� th� type� o� morphologica� processe� foun� i� Navajo
illustrate interaction of morphology and phonology


Navajo--� Nativ� America� languag� spoke� i� Ne� Mexic� an� Arizona�  �
a� Athabaskan� language� famil� include� language� spoke� i� interio� �
Alaska� norther� an� wester� subarcti� Canada� als� originall� Pacifi� �
coas� (n� Calif.� Oregon� Washington)�  Navaj� belong� t� Apachean� �
subfamil� i� Athabaskan�  Mos� Ath� language� ar� dwindling� childre� �
o� Ath� speaker� ar� learnin� English�  Navaj� a� exception� mayb� �
150,00� speakers, including children.  


Navaj� orthography� Phoneticall� based� unlik� English� (On� practica� �
applicatio� o� phonetics/phonology� creatin� workabl� spellin� system� �
fo� unwritte� languages.�  "practica� orthography� mean� on� tha� use� �
mainl� standar� typewrite� symbols� ofte� makin� us� o� orthographi� �
convention� fo� whateve� dominan� languag� is� cf� Navajo� Quechua�  �
wil� giv� example� toda� i� Navaj� orthography:


Surface phonology.
     vowels: four long, four short:

          i [I], e [ ], a [ ], o [o]

          i� [i:]� e� [e:]� a� [a:]� o� [o:�  (n� u/uu� bu� a� allo�
phon� o� o/oo)

nasal�    i\� i\i\� etc� indicate� wit� "nasa� hook"--othe� orthographie� �
also use this: Polish, Dakota.

     diphthongs:

          ai [ay,  y]:  hai 'winter'

          aii: [yiigaii] 'it turned white'

          ei�  se,i,� 'sand� (not� [ei� contrast� wit� [e]� dibe,� 'sheep'� 

          eii: bicheii 'his maternal grandfather'

          oi: [Iwi] deesdoi 'it's hot (weather)'

          oii: l/itsoii 'the yellow one'

          
     consonants (stops):  

unaspirated          b    d    dz   dl   j    g    
�aspirated                 t    ts   tl   ch   k   kw
ejective                  t'   ts'  tl'  ch'  k'       '

' is glottal stop
      
notic� Nav� use� symbol� fo� voice� vs� voiceles� stop� i� Englis� fo� �
asp. vs. unasp. 

notic� als� tha� Navaj� ha� wide� arra� o� affricate� tha� English� �
including non-occurring combinations [dl], [tl], etc.

ejective�  combinatio� o� sto� an� glotta� stop�  [t']� mak� alveola� �
an� glotta� sto� jus� abou� simultaneously� the� rais� larynx� compres�
sin� ai� i� ora� cavity� releas� ora� closure� smal� explosio� a� �
pressur� released� the� glotta� sto� released�  mak� al� ejectiv� �
stops�  

n� p� p'� n� labio-vela� stop� othe� tha� kw--language� ofte� hav� �
gaps� Nativ� America� language� no� infrequentl� hav� partia� labia� �
series.

.cp 3
     fricatives:

voiceless      s    l/    sh   x    hw
voiced         z    l    zh   gh

Pronounce all fricatives.

     sonorants

nasals         m    n

glides                   y         w

     tone:

inheren� pitc� i� � distinctiv� feature� distinguishin� meaning�  � �
levels� low� high� rising� fallin� reducibl� t� sequence� o� high-lo� �
or low-high. only high tone written.  

     tone pairs:  'ani,i,' 'waist'; 'anii' 'face'

                  ni,li,\ 'you are'; nili,\ 'he, she is'


Morphology.  

     Tw� mai� kind� o� morpholog� i� Navajo� affixation� compounding.

Affixation� conjoinin� o� non-wor� morphem� t� stem� Eg� i� English�  �
cat, cats.

Compounding: conjoining of stems. cat, cat fight.  

will illustrate both of these processes in Navajo.
�
1. Affixation--
     if affix added in front of stem, called prefix
     suffix
     infix
     
Navajo affixation processes are prefixing, suffixing

Stem� t� whic� affixe� ma� b� adde� ar� nouns� verbs� postpositions�  �
wil� jus� tal� abou� noun� here� 

1.� possession� i� nou� i� possessed� indicate� wit� possessiv� prefi� �
o� nou� possesso� (late� example� nou� � nou� possession)� 

     1s        shi-      
     2s        ni-       
     3s        yi-
               bi-
     3a        ha-, ho-
     3i        'a-
     1,2d      nihi-     
     pl        da- (goes outside of other prefixes)

ho� d� w� kno� thes� ar� prefixes� no� separat� words� i� som� cases� �
prefi� fuse� wit� followin� stem� form� singl� phonologica� word� dif� �
from word+word combinations

example� o� possesse� noun� (al� wit� bi-)� not� phonologica� change� �
t� possesse� nou� stem:

     stem ends in high tone open syllable:

          to, 'water'--bito' 'his water'
          tse, 'rock'--bitse' 'his rock'
          nahagha, 'religion' binahagha' 'his religion'

rule: stem tone lowers, glottal stop affixed:

     PFX-STEM-'

     --stem begins or ends in fricative:

          l/eezh 'soil'--bileezh 'his soil'
          so\' 'star'--bizo\' 'his star'
          he,e,l/ 'pack'--biye,e,l 'his pack'
          hosh 'cactus, thorn'--biwozh 'his thorn'
          shaazh 'knot'--bizhaazh 'his knot'

rule: fricativ� i� voice� whe� precede� b� voice� segment� 
account� fo� stem-initia� fricatives� bu� stem-fina� fricative� � pro�
blem� behav� a� thoug� som� voice� segmen� ther� i� additio� t� glotta� �
sto� (wa� historically� cf� Sek� -e`'� Slav� -e,� suppos� glotta� sto� �
adde� t� al� possesse� noun� a� marke� o� possesse� nou� an� voicin� �
occur� befor� glotta� sto� a� wel� a� afte� voice� segment:

�( ) fricative --> voiced / voiced ___
                           ___ '

' deleted by later rule:

( ) ' --> 0/ / fricative ___

what'� goin� o� wit� [h]� h� actuall� � conventio� fo� x� als� nee� t� �
kno� tha� gh� y� don'� contras� befor� i� e� an� gh� w� don'� contras� �
before o. in other words, 

( )  gh --> y / ___ i, e
            w / ___ o

s� � (x� --� g� b� regula� rule� the� get� change� t� appropriat� glid� �
befor� non-low vowel.

     --stem contains low tone long vowel + ':

          k'aa' 'arrow'--bik'a' or bik'aa' 'his arrow' 
          ts'aa' 'basket'--bits'a' or bits'aa' 'his basket'

rule� lo� ton� lon� vowe� shorten� before two glottal stops:

( )  VV --> V / ___ ''

( )  generalize ' Deletion:

     ' --> 0/ / C ___

     --stem ends in short vowel followed by fricative or nasal:

          sis 'belt' -- biziiz 'his belt'
          si� 'song'--biyii� 'hi� song� (irregula� stem-initia� � �
change)

rule: stem ending in short vowel lengthens before fricative or nasal

( )  V --> VV / ___   fricative  '
                      nasal     

Phonological changes to prefixes:

     --stem begins with vowel

          -a,di, 'older sister' or -i,chi,\i,\h 'nose':  
          ba,di,, bi,chi,\i,\h 

rule: i --> 0// ___ V
          
Inalienabl� possesse� nouns� noun� whic� inherentl� belon� t� someon� �
o� something�  bod� part� (includin� part� o� plants)� kinshi� terms�  �
mothers� fathers� etc� hav� thi� specia� statu� onl� b� virtu� o� thei� �
inseparabl� relationshi� t� anothe� person� Similarly� bod� part� no� �
normall� foun� independentl� o� th� bein� whic� the� belon� to�  Also� ��nests� burrows� lairs--thes� ar� regarde� a� inseparabl� attribute� o� �
th� being� tha� buil� an� us� them�  I� Navajo� thes� mus� alway� b� �
possessed� I� English� possesso� no� important� "a� arm"� I� Navajo� �
wha� happen� i� don'� kno� possesso� (e.g.� 'something'� branc� [o� �
tree� struc� me')� mus� us� indefinit� possessiv� prefi� 'a-:

     'agod     'a knee'
     'akee'    'a foot, toe'
     'abe'     'milk'

prefi� mus� b� use� unles� talkin� abou� bod� par� i� detached� �
impersonal sense:

     'a,la,tsi,i,n 'wrist'  : la,tsi,i,n nina,'nil/i, 'handcuffs'
la,tsi,i,n 'wrist' nina,'nil/ 'they are put on' -i, 'nominalizing'

repossession of inalienably possessed nouns--double prefixation

     be'ago� 'hi� (someone's� knee� someone'� kne� i� hi� possession� 
     be'akee'  'his (someone's) foot, someone's foot in his possession'
     be'abe' 'his milk (e.g. from the store)'

( )  i --> e / ___ '

another example of double prefixation--

     nihima, 'your (du.) mother'

     danihima, 'your (du.) mother'
          da- also has distributive sense: 'the mothers of each of you'

          either prefix or prefix-stem falls under scope of da-

apparently can occur in either order:

     'o,l/ta'i, 'scholar, schoolchild'
     nihe'o,l/ta'i, 'our schoolchild'
     nihida'o,l/ta'i, 'our schoolchildren'

affixation of nouns--summary:

     PFX * - STEM - SFX

order:

da- 'distributive plural' 
alienable possessive prefixes (bi- etc.) 
inalienable possessive prefix 'a-
     
2. Nominalizing suffixes

     -i, 'the one that'
     -ii 'the particular one that'

cf. hataal/i, 'singer'
�    hataal/ii 'singer, medicine man (professional singer)'

     -i,gi,i, 'the one, the one that, the kind that'
     -nii 'clans or people'
     -ji, (forms nouns designating ceremonies and institutions) 
     -ee (forms ceremonial names, certain adverbs)

ne� word� ma� ente� th� languag� wit� thes� suffixes� Navaj� typicall� �
no� � borrowin� language--ne� word� ente� b� coinin� noun� b� reg� �
rules of the language

some examples: (others p. 13)

     -i, 

     tl'idi, 'motorcycle' < tl'id 'fart' -i, 'nom' 
     na,'oolkil/i, 'clock� � na,'oolkil� 'somethin� i� move� slowl� i� � �
circle' + -i, 'nom.')
     bii'iigisi, 'laundr� tub� � bii� 'insid� o� it� 'iigi� 'washin� o� �
permeable articles takes place -i, 'nom.
     'azee'il/i,ni, 'doctor� � 'azee� 'medicine� 'i,i,l/'i\, 'h� i� � �
maker of it' -i, nom.
     to, l/ika,ni, halchinigi,i, 'perfume� � to, 'liquid� � l/ika,ni, �
'sweet� + halchin 'it smells' + -igii 'nom.' 

     -nii

     be,e,s� n,t'i'ni� 'peopl� livin� alon� th� railroad� � be,es� �
n,ti'i' 'railroad' + -nii 'people'

     -ji, 

     Dzaane,e,zji, 'Democrat' < dzaane,e,z 'mule' + -ji, 'nom.'
     Chi,\i,\� Ye� 'Adilohiiji, 'Republican� � Chi,\i,\� Ye� 'Adilohi� �
'elephant' -ji, nom.
 
     ho,lo,ni,gi,i, 'th� kin� o� th� on� tha� exists� � ho,lo,� � -�
ni,gi,i, 'nom.� 
     siti,ni, 'the one that lies' < siti,\ 'he lies' + nom.
     'aya,ni, 'the one that eats' < 'aya,\ 'he eats' + nom.
     shi,ni,ini� 'claimant� � shi, 'it'� mine� � ni,� 'h� says� � -i� �
nom� 

precedin� example� illustrat� rul�  o� Nasalization� whereb� nasa� �
vowel� derive� fro� /Vn� word-finally� /n� preserve� befor� vowel-fina� �
suffix.

( )  Vn --> V\ / ___ word boundary

(last eg. also illustrates lengthening, will not discuss it here)


Compounding in nominal morphology

1. Noun (stem) + Noun (stem) (modifier + head)
�
     l/eets'aa� 'dish� earthenware� � l/ee(zh)- 'dirt� soil� � ts'aa� �
'dish'
     k'aaye,e,� 'quive� fo� arrows� � k'aa- 'arrow� � he,e,�/ 'burden� �
pack�)
     na,t'e,e,zh 'eyeshadow' < na,- 'eyes' + t'e,e,zh 'charcoal' 

2. Noun + postposition 

     tse,yi' 'canyon' < tse 'rock' -yi' 'within')

     Dine,ta� 'traditiona� Navaj� country� � Dine, 'Navajo� � ta� �
'among')

     dzil/gha\,a\,' 'mountain top'< dzil/ 'mountain' -gha\,a\, 'on top'

7. Noun + possessed noun

     be,es� bizi� 'purse� � be,es� 'money� � bi- 3� � -zi� 'sack� (not� �
no lengthening!)

     chidi, bitoo� 'gasoline� � chidi, 'car� � bi- 3� � t� 'water� -� �
psd

     to, bi,i,shgha,a,� 'wave� � to, 'water� � bi,i,shgha,a,� 'it� �
spine'

5. Noun + PP + Noun (first noun topicalized)

     tse, be� hoogha� 'roc� hogan� � tse, 'rock� � be� 'b� mean� o� it� �
hooghan 'hogan'

     naalye,he, ba, hoogha� 'tradin� post� store� � naalye,he, �
'merchandise' + ba, 'for it' + hooghan 'store'

3. Noun (stem) + Verb (stem)

     tl'ohchin 'onion' (tl'oh 'grass' + -chin 'smell')

     tse,t'ees 'griddle' < tse, 'rock' + t'ees 'cook', roast'

4. Noun + Verb (with prefixes) 

     to,nteel 'ocean, large lake' < to, 'water' + nteel 'broad'

     tsinaa'eel/ 'boat' < tsin 'wood' + naa'eel/ 'it floats around'

6. Noun + Verb (nominalized) (Noun that verbs)

     jool� yikali, 'baseball� � jool� 'ball� � yika� 'i� i� swatted� �
batted' + -i

     ni'go,o, naazkaadi, 'carpet� rug� � ni'go,o, 'o� th� floor� � �
naazkaad 'it lies spread' + -i

�     be,e,s� hataal/i, 'phonograph� � be,e,s� 'metal� instrument� � �
hataal/ 'it sings' + -i

8. Postposition + nominalized verb

     bee'atsidi, 'hammer� � be� 'wit� it� � 'atsi� 'ther� i� pounding� �
+ -i 

     bika,a,� da� na,'ni,daahi, 'toilet� � bika,a,� 'o� it� da� 'up, a� �
an elevation' na,'ni,daah 'someone repeatedly sits down' -i,

     ba,'olta'i, ''schoolteacher� � ba, 'fo� him� � 'o,lta� 'readin� i� �
done' + -i, 

9. Noun + postposition + nominalized verb

     'awoo� bil� yich'iishi, 'toothpaste� � 'awoo� 'tooth� bil� 'i� �
company with it' yich'iish 'they are brushed' + -i 

     'awoo' bee yich'iishi 'toothbrush' < ... bee 'by means of it' ...