The womb environment can
effect several generations. (of the mother
-->daughter--->grand daughter etc.)
|
- In a series of experiments with
rats, pregnant rats were either subjected to
stress or no stress. Stress was induced by
handling the rats. After birth, the
offspring of the mothers who were stressed will
do less exploration.
|
- Then the daughters of the stressed
mothers produced daughters whose children also
did less exploration than control rants, even
though no stress was added to the gestation
process. This is an example of a nongenetic
familial intergeneration effect.
|
- Nongenetic familial
intergenerational effects on glucose metabolism
that are relevant to diabetes have been
found in rats. This research has
implications for the development human diabetes.
|
- The development of the
physiological processes that control glucose
metabolism occur during late fetal development in
the human. In the rat, however, these
processes develop just after birth.
Manipulating the amount of glucose in the blood
of an infant rat is similar to manipulating the
amount of glucose in the blood of a human
fetus. It is therefore relatively easy to
do research on these physiological processes in
rats that correspond to human fetal development.
|
| Quick Note:
Insulin is responsible for the metabolism of glucose.
Diabetics suffer from an insulin deficiency and
abnormal glucose metabolism |
In an experiment
we are given a Female Rat...
This young female rat is over fed, and subsequently becomes
over weight, no big surprise!, however, the animal's glucose metabolism
also changes. If the offspring of this rat is female, then her children
will also show an altered glucose metabolism compared to control rats,
very surprising! If this female rat also has children, they will become
over weight due to altered glucose metabolism. That is, a change in
glucose metabolism in this rat's grandmother affected her glucose
metabolism 2 generations later. |
Another Insulin Example: |
Who: Native American Pima
Community
Location: Arizona
What: The Pima Indians developed
difficulty with insulin.
50% of the community now has diabetes |
Beans were the
primary food, but when other food was introduced the
people's insulin was thrown very off, and they now
suffer from diabetes. Why is this situation
even more serious than it might appear?
Remember the previous experiment with the rats, where
the grandmothers were overfed grandmothers resulted
in diabetic and over weight grandchildren
This would make us suspect familial intergenerational effects on insulin
metabolism in the pima Indians' future, even if they were able to change
their diet now!
|
|
Parenting |
- Authoritarian – Very strict
rules, with the no reason or the simple reason:
"I said so"
- Permissive – Very liberal
parents
- Rejecting/neglecting –
don’t care what the child does or
doesn’t do.
-
Authoritative* –
demanding, but with reasons. And as the child
gets older, the child participate in rule making.
|
* = the most
effective form of parenting
|
Research that has concluded that authoritative parenting results in
the greatest social competency and self-reliance, was found through
correlational research rather than experimental research. See
section 1 about experimental methods if you have any questions.
These studies by themselves cannot determine
whether the self-reliance of the child is causing the parents to
use an authoritative parenting style, or whether the authoritative
parenting style of the parents is causing the self-reliance of the
child.
It is also
possible that a third variable such as parental
education could be causing the higher
self-reliance in the child rather than the actual
parenting style itself.
However,
because the authoritative parenting style preserves self esteem,
(see discussion below) it is likely that this style foster socially
competent behavior in children.
|
|
|
The Experience Of Choice Is Essential For The
Child To Develop Self Esteem And Social Competence.
|
Learned helplessness – When the child is punished
no matter what, the child believes that .. no matter what they do, they
will always be punished, therefore he or she learns to act in a helpless
manner. Learned helplessness has been shown to cause depression. |
Natural consequences - When a child does
something that they have been told not to, and
"mother nature" steps in, with consequences
directly related to the action. |
Children learn from natural consequences
However, sometime when natural consequences
are too dangerous, or too distant, or when no natural
consequences will not occur, the parent must step in with logical
consequences.
|
Logically consequences are what should
be created by the parents when a child violates family or
social values. |
Logical consequences are
consequences that the parent constructs that is
logically related to the behavior that the child
does. - if the child does not dress in time, he/she
could be inconvenienced by changing in the car.
|
Children have a tendency to test to see if the
parents will be consistent.
|
Logically Consequences are different
from punishment, the differences are that the
child is actually given a choice, to which they
can say no to one of the alternatives. The key
point is that they are able to CHOOSE.
|
Make sure that the logical consequence is directly
related to the misbehavior…
A punishment does not typically
directly relate to the misbehavior.
|
It is this experience of choice that empowers
the child and results in greater self reliance and
self esteem.
|
Attachment
Study by Harry Harlow |
| Study tests the
relative attachment a baby monkey has to either a cloth
surrogate or a wire surrogate mother |
Previously it was believed that the monkey would
seek the wire mother for security because it was the
supplier of food
|
Harlow was able to disprove this theory with
his test which showed that the monkey would seek
the cloth mother when ever it felt insecure or
threatened due to the softness and comfort.
|
Because Harlow's monkeys were dolls they were
unresponsive. The babies raised with these
unresponsive mothers, especially with unresponsive
wire mothers, were unable to care for their own
children. Moreover, they were unable to mate,
rather they had to be artificially impregnated, and
even after giving birth they murdered their own
offspring.
|
FACT: Abused children are 4x as likely to become
abusive to their children, this is not surprising given
the effects Harlow observed in monkeys. |
|
Attachment in human infants:
The strange situation is a standard procedure used to assess infant attachment,
typically between the ages of 12 - 18 months. In the strange situation,
the infant first plays with toys in the presence of the primary caregiver,
usually the mother. A stranger then enters the room. A short time later,
the mother leaves. Next the stranger leaves. Finally, the mother returns.
The strange situation examines how the infant handles stranger anxiety
and separation anxiety . Stranger anxiety is when an infant becomes afraid,
cries, or reaches for the primary caregiver when approached by a stranger.
Stranger anxiety usually emerges around 6 - 7 months and ends by 18 months.
Separation anxiety is when infants become anxious and cry when the caregivers
are not present. This peaks around 12 to 16 months and ends between 2
- 3 years. There are three attachment classifications.
|
1. Securely attached infants – These infants
have a secure relationship with their primary attachment figure. They
explore the environment in the presence of the mother and react positively
to strangers. When the mother leaves, the child becomes distress.
When the mother returns, the child happily greets their mother.
2. Insecure, anxious-resistent - The infant is fearful in the
presence of the mother and seeks her attention. There is limited exploration
of the environment. When the mother leaves, the infant is highly distressed.
When the mother returns, the infant is not soothed by the mother and
may resist her attempts to contact. The child is still upset.
3. Insecure, anxious-avoidant - The infants show few signs of
attachment to their mother. When the mother is present, the infant does
not actively seek the mother. When the mother leaves, the infant rarely
cries. When the mother returns, the infants do not seek contact with
the mother, although they will not resist contact.
|
|
|
Of relationships with mothers...
...60% of children are securely attached
And
...40% of children are insecurely attached |
Notes From Movie: |
Types of Babies
|
- The exploring babies have a
particular relationship with their mother.
These babies only go back to the mother, to
make sure that "she’s there" -
This baby develops from a relaxed mother
who is available when the baby needs comfort/security
|
- The other type of baby is a nervous and
anxiety prone baby.
This type of baby develops from a mother who
likes to keep their babies out of harms way,
is an over protective mother.
|
Reactive baby - a timid
or easily irritated baby
|
Behavior is inherited- but it
can be changed?
There was an experiment which involved cross
fostering where the reactive babies were adopted
by the relaxed mothers to see if the babies would
become more bold. This experiment was
successful so long as the reactive infant is near
the relaxed mother, as soon as the mother
disappears the baby can revert back to the
reactive behavior.
|
(Human) Children who are "highly reactive" at birth, are typically
insecure attached at 13 months
Can attachment (secure vs insecure) be influenced
by the mother's behavior?
In an experiment was conducted to answer this
question. From a group of mothers and their new
born infants were randomly assigned to 1 of 2
conditions. In one condition the mothers were
allowed to raise their infants, in the way they the
normally would. The other half the mothers
were trained as how to be especially responsive to their
babies.
|
| The results of the experiment were that: |
of the trained mothers 68% of the babies became
securely attached whereas...
|
of the untrained mothers, only 28% became securely attached.
|
These results indicate that there are both genetic as
well as non genetic influences on a baby's attachment
style. |
Types of Love/Amour/Romance
|
|
The
difference in romantic and erotic love, and motherly
love,
is that in romantic love 2 people are trying to fuse
together,
in motherly love2 people are trying to break a part.
|
Types of love –
Mania – (Possessive love) The Greeks
called it ‘theia mania’ or a ‘madness
from the Gods.’ This style is intense,
irrational, and often painful. The manic lover is
consumed by the beloved, needs constant contact and
reassurance, and is overcome with jealousy or despair
if love is threatened. The manic over lover often
feels that "I’m nobody unless somebody
loves me."
Eros – an immediate powerful
attraction, a fascination by the image of the beloved
as a vision of ideal beauty, and a hint of
recognition of your one true love; these are some of
the aspects of Eros. Sexual intimacy occurs early in
this style and erotic lovers delight in strong mutual
sexual attraction. However, the erotic lovers wants
total intimacy at all levels; emotional and social as
well as physical.
Ludus – love as a game or an
enjoyable pastime was developed by the Roman Poet,
Ovid who wrote, The Art of Love. Love is fun, but the
ludic lover does not want to get too involves.
Multiple lovers and various distancing maneuvers are
some of the strategies used in the game of love. The
ideas is for mutual enjoyment without anyone getting
serious and the ludic lover tries to play the game
with honor.
Pragma – love with a shopping list.
The lover must be compatible and posses certain
required characteristics. Computer dating is an
example of the pragmatic approach attempting to pair
people based on compatible personalities, similar
interests, and similar backgrounds. This
compassionate form of love usually begins with very
little passion or sexual intimacy although once a
bond has been formed, more intense emotional intimacy
may evolve.
Storge – an affectionate and stable
form of love like in the story where the boy marries
the girl next door. While sex occurs late in the
relationship, storgic lovers often consider sex as an
intimate self-disclosure or communication between
friends. Storgic love becomes naturally as a
consequence of shared activities, similarities, and
the passage of time.
Agape – Universal love given without
a thought about gain or reciprocity. C.S. Lewis
called it Gift-Love because this style is
characterized by an emphasis on loving rather than
being loved. Agape is also unconditional, the lover
does not have to earn it, it is a love that is always
gentle, kind, patient, enduring, never jealous, never
demanding.
|
| IMPORTANT
INFORMATION!!!
Note: Self
expansion is defined by the incorporation of information
from the other person in the relationship into one's own
self.
According to one theory, love involves the expansion of
one's self.
The best way to keep love fresh is to make sure that
each person grows at, at least a similar rate! Otherwise,
once you have learned everything about the other person,
love tends to wane.
|
|
The sex
drive |
-
animals seek out, approach and copulate
- the hypothalamus
- male sex drive in animals
- Medial preoptic area
- testosterone receptors have been
isolated here
- Female sex drive in animals
- ventromedial area
|
Hormonal Effects After puberty |
- For males:
Testosterone is need to maintain sex drive
- Castration reduces sex drive
- Injection of testosterone restores
sex drive
- Adding testosterone to the medial
preoptic area restores sex drive
- For female nonhuman animals
- Estrogen and progesterone is needed to
maintain sex drive
- For human females
- Estrogen and progesterone are not needed
to maintain sex drive
- Testosterone (produced by adrenals)
increases sex drive
|
Testosterone controls sexual motivation, but men
are not the only ones with it because it is also secreted
by the adrenal gland, not just the testes. |
Given the dependent and independent variables below, can
you predict the result of the following experiment?
|
Independent variables |
- Males
- Females
|
- Sexually explicit materials
- Clothed individuals kissing and touching
|
Dependent variables: |
Psychological Measures of arousal
Physiological measures of arousal
|
Physiological sexual arousal was measured for both men
and women while they watched explicit pornographic
videos. The same group was measured for sexual
arousal when watching videos of softcore videos: kissing
& touching.
|
While watching Explicit videos:
Were men aroused more than men?
Were were women arouse more than women?
Or, were they equally aroused?
|
| Results: The only
difference found between men and women was the gender of
the person they were attracted to.
|
| Women, like men, were more sexually
aroused by the sexually explicit material, than the
'softcore' material (Clothed individuals kissing and
touching) |
Sexual orientation
|
Homosexual behavior has been observed in all investigated mammalian
species.
|
| Prenatal
effects due to exposure to testosterone |
Embryonicly, we wall start out as females
Physical Sexual development for
the male does not occur until the fetus produces
testosterone, from the testes.
This occurs at around 2 months from conception.
Testosterone turns on the development of the
sexual organs.
Therefore an embryo which has a testosterone deficiency develops as
a female, even if it is a genetically a male. But by the age of
puberty, the genetic male, physically female, when exposed to the testosterone
emitted by the body during adolescents, undergoes a spontaneous physical
sexual change from female characteristics to male characteristics.
|
Hypothalamus – responsible for thirst,
hunger, and general drives – sexual drives in
particular for our sturdy.
|
For this portion of the brain, (the hypothalamus)
the homosexual man is similar to that of a woman. |
66% of mothers homosexuals recall stress during
pregnancy
33% for bisexuals
10% for heterosexuals.
|
The incidence of male homosexuality is more than double
that of a female.
Later born, 2nd, 3rd or what have
you, have a tendency to have less exposure to the
mother’s testosterone then the first born. |
Professor Gunter Doorner (East Berlin)
studied the effect of stress on pregnant rats. Stress effects the womb’s
environment, stressed animals produced more adrenaline
(adrenaline inhibits the testosterone in the fetus). Depending upon
when this occurs during gestation, different aspects of sexual development
can be effected. One aspect is sexual orientation, that is, male rats that
are denied testosterone during certain stages of fetal development behave
as females during adulthood. Conversely, females who are given testosterone
during fetal development behave like males during adulthood. This
is likely due to male-female differences in the sexual differentiation of
the brain. That is, the female brain is slightly different than the
male brain. |
Movie Topic: Homosexuality: Is it born or
breed? |
Homosexuality's Genetic
Component |
Male occurrences being gay.
|
Identical twin studies state that the
probability is 52%
Fraternal twin is gay, then your probability is
22%
11% rate of adoptive non-related sibling
becoming/being gay.
|
Female
occurrences being gay.
|
Identical twin
studies state that the probability is 48%
Fraternal twin is gay, then your probability is
16%
?(unknown)% rate of adoptive non-related sibling
becoming/being gay.
|
| Recent research shows homosexual
behavior is associated with specific x-linked genes. |
If your uncle is homosexual, your probability of
being gay goes up, but only if it is your
mother’s brother, rather than your father's
brother, because the gene found to be related to a
homosexual orientation is transferred by the X
chromosome. See the following Article: Science,
1993
|
Original Journal-Article on the Discovery of Genetic Basis of Homosexuality |
- Journal-Article: A linkage
between DNA markers on the X chromosome and male
sexual orientation.
- Authors: Hamer,-Dean-H.; Hu,-Stella; Magnuson,-Victoria-L.;
Hu,-Nan; et-al
- Publication Information: Science,
1993 Jul; Vol 261(5119): 321-327.
- Investigated the role of
genetics in male sexual orientation by pedigree
and linkage analyses on 114 families of
homosexual men. Increased rates of same-sex
orientation were found in the maternal uncles and
male cousins of these Ss, but not in their
fathers or paternal relatives, suggesting the
possibility of sex-linked transmission in a
portion of the population. DNA linkage analysis
of a selected group of 40 families in which there
were 2 gay brothers and no indication of
nonmaternal transmission revealed a correlation
between homosexual orientation and the
inheritance of polymorphic markers on the X
chromosome in approximately 64% of the sib-pairs
tested. The linkage to markers on Xq28, the
subtelomeric region of the long arm of the sex
chromosome, indicated a statistical confidence
level of more than 99% that at least 1 subtype of
male sexual orientation is genetically
influenced. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved) .
|
For more information See the following book |
- Title: The science of desire:
The search for the gay gene and the biology of
behavior. (hardcover)
Author: Hamer,-Dean-H.;
Copeland,-Peter
Publication information: New
York, NY, USA: Simon and Schuster, Inc. (1994).
272 pp. Abstract:
(from the jacket) In "The Science of
Desire," [the author] explains the thinking
behind his study [of a gene marker linked to male
homosexuality], how the experiments were
actually carried out, and what the discovery
means. /// [This book] expands on [the author's]
history-making research to explore the
scientific, social, and ethical issues raised by
his findings. He explains why the old
"nature versus nurture" dichotomy is a
false one, why the discovery of a genetic link
doesn't mean that everyone with the gene will be
gay or that everyone who is gay has the gene, and
how the gene might act through personality traits
such as independence and self-reliance. Dr. Hamer
also addresses such tough questions as whether it
would be possible or ethical to test in utero for
the gay gene and whether genetic manipulation
could or should be used to alter a person's
sexuality; how a gay gene could have survived
evolution; and why the discovery of this 1st
genetic link to a human behavior is so important
for the future of genetic research--and of
mankind. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved) .
|
Simon Levey - |
Gay researcher who investigated anatomical differences in the hypothalamus
between homosexuals males, heterosexuals males and heterosexual females.
|
- He found that an area of the anterior
hypothalamus was larger in heterosexual males
than in homosexual males. The size of this
area was similar between homosexual males and
heterosexual females.
- This demonstrates that there are anatomical
differences between some homosexual
and heterosexual males.
- Because this is a correlational study , we do not know if homosexual
behavior causes these difference or if these differences cause homosexuality.
Simon Levey strongly believes that these anatomical differences are
are a cause rather than a result of homosexual behavior.
|
Kinsy Scale |
1 – 7 scale, fraternal twins could
rate completely opposite than the other.
There are other factors in sexual orientation, than
just simply genetics, for example culture.
|
Different cultural views on Homosexuality
|
Many primitive cultures do
not possess the concept of "homosexuality"
There is simply diversity in sexual expression
|
The occurrence of sequential bisexuality* in some cultures indicates that
homosexual behavior can also be culturally determined. |
* Sequential
Bisexuality - instances when members of a
culture are nearly exclusively homosexual for a time
followed by heterosexual behavior.
|
Marind Anim of New Guinea
|
- At the age of six, the father chooses an
adult male child
- From 12-16 adolescence has several male
lovers
- Opposite sex marriages are arranged.
|
Batak of Northern Sumatra
|
-
children view as sexual at age 6
- 6-16 years of age same sex activity is
encourages
- Adolescents best friend describes sexual
prowess of his mate to convince the girl and
her parents that he would be a good mate.
|
| About
Freud:
|
-
Born in Friburg
Czechoslovakia in 1856 & moved to to Vienna
Austria when he was 3.
Attained his MD after
concentrated study in physiology, then turned his
attention to psychiatry.
Freud's theories were based upon
the case studies of the patients he encountered.
He did not use the scientific method
to verify his findings.
Although his
theories are unquestionably fascinating, many
aspects of his theories lack scientific support.
(verification). However, no other
investigator of human psychology has proposed
theories as grand and all encompassing as Freud's
theories. Even today, his writings are
inspiring if not totally accurate.
When Freud was 28,
he used cocaine, he also prescribed cocaine to
his patients and friends. It was only later that
Freud realized how addictive cocaine was.
After one of his friends died of cocaine abuse,
he publicly withdrew his support of the medical
benefits of cocaine. Although Freud never
seemed to be especially addicted to cocaine, he
was addicted to nicotine. Freud continued
to smoke cigars heavily (20 per day) even after
being diagnosed with oral cancer.
In 1939 his books
were burned in his homeland, and he barely
escaped Nazi Germany in 1939 with his life, his 2
sisters died in concentration camps during World
War II. Freud died shortly after
fleeing. He chose to end his life with a
doctor assisted suicide. His cancer had
reached the point where he had asked his
physician to administer a lethal dose of
morphine. Freud Died peacefully in England,
1939.
-
Fore More information See
the Library
of Congress's Freud Exhibit
or Read: Civilization and it’s
Discontents, by Freud
|
Freud distinguished between latent content and manifestcontent: |
Grato’s Joke:
|
Grato asks a John, "Are you
married?"
John: "Yes, happily
married"
Grato: "Do you have any
children?"
John: "Yes, 9, and one more on
the way."
Grato: "Well, how many years
have you been married?"
John: "10"
Grato: taken aback: "10 years,
10 children!!!"
John: "I love my wife very
much."
Grato: "Yes, well, I love my
cigar, but I take it out of my mouth once in a
while!"
|
Primary Process = Unconscious processes of
the Id (Dreams, free-association, right brain,
irrational)
The unconscious is the Id
|
Secondary process = conscious processes of the Ego
(rational)
|
|
How a human mind is like an iceberg
|
|
| Types of Biological
rhythms: |
Ciradan – about 24 hours
|
Ultradian – less than 24
hours
|
To measure these rhythms, monitor: |
an important circadian rhythm is the core body temperature
|
Core Body temperature varies together with
Alertness and is responsible for jet lag
|
Temperature also affects the speed
of neurotransmission
|
Zeitgeber: Time cue |
free run rhythm
|
about 25 hours.
|
Free running rhythm -
|
- a rhythm that is not controlled by
time cues.
- 1 hour is added to the normal 24 hour day
making the body's natural rhythm 25 hours
causing the free running day to drift 1 hour
behind each day in 'normal' time, that is
after 24 days, you would be waking at the
same time as everyone else but 1 day behind
them.
|
Pineal Gland |
Secretes Melatonin
|
Amount
affected by:
|
Light (suppresses melatonin)
Magnetic fields
|
Circadian rhythm – (arousal rhythm) |
3 weeks to change rhythm
|
That is, it would take 3 weeks to
completely overcome jetlag.
|
Melatonin can help
you make the transition
smoother and quicker when taken both prior to
and during the trip. Melatonin could
be taken at the time of night during which it
would usually be secreted when you are in the
new time zone that you are flying to.
|
It is best to remain with the same work schedule,
because once the circadian rhythm is set it takes 3
weeks to readjust a rhythm. The first 2 weeks
is when the majority of this change takes
place.
|
Within in the First 2 weeks you are trying to
be active while your body is gearing down for
sleep, and you are gearing down for sleep when
your body is preparing to become active.
|
If you must work on a rotating shift schedule, then schedule changes
should be at least 3 week apart, and in a clockwise fashion: that is
from night shift to morning shift to evening shift.
|
Derived From Movie:
1 in 4 working men and 1 in 6 working women have a rotating
shift schedule. |
IF deprived of sleep, people, rats, dogs, animals… will
die.
Activation synthesis - hypothesis of dreaming |
(Harvard) Hobsond & McCarley
|
- There are random neural signals –
or seizures, through these random
signals, some are sent to the visual
cortex so as to produce images. Then your
brain interprets these images.
- Scene changes occur at the point of rapid
eye movement
- The brain is also subject to suggestion,
therefore if there is a strange (audible)
sound, or a verbal cue/suggestion, the
person interprets it into the dream.
|
Lucid Dreams - (Steven La Berge first
do demonstrate that lucid dreams existed) –
The dreamer knows that they are dreaming while they are dreaming
– allows you certain amount of control.
Usually occurs during the later stages of REM sleep, when
there is a higher REM density. |
80% have had a lucid dream at least once in their
life
10-15% Lucid dream once a month
|
If you have a high percentage of lucid
dreams, you typically have very
high dream recall over all
|
If you are lucid, and then realize you are
waking-up, and you wish to keep dreaming, make your
dream-body spin, and repeat to yourself
"I’m dreaming…I’m
dreaming…I’m dreaming…" This
prevents you from waking,, brings you back into the
dream, and helps you remember you are dreaming.
|
| Also when dreaming you have
high account of amnesia of the real world. For example
while living in Seattle, you may think (dream) you're
living in N.Y.
Reality monitoring -in the waking world, being able to
distinguish between reality and
dreams.
|
