16th C:
COUNTER REFORMATION ROME
1512
LATERAN COUNCIL in Rome
decrees against simony (buying, selling church offices)
financial & moral corruption
1537 Advice on Reforming the Church
denunciation of city of Rome as
“brothel”
commission appointed by Pope
Paul III, Farnese
Roman family, builder of Farnese Palace
transitional "Janus
Pope" - looking forward &
back
father
of several illegitimate children, later reformed
COUNTER
REFORMATION INSTITUTIONS:
1) COUNCIL OF TRENT 1545-63
general council called to reform Church in response to
Protestant Reformation
reforms create new phase: Tridentine
Church 1563-1960
2) ROMAN INQUISITION: jurisdiction only in Italy
modeled on Spanish Inquisition
(founded in 1478)
founded in 1542 by Gian Pietro Carafa
later Pope Paul IV 1555-59
directed against Protestant
heretics:
Lutherans, Calvinists, Anabaptists
Pope Pius V Michele Ghislieri 1566-72 Dominican:
second
former Inquisitor as Pope
famous Inquisition trials: (see below for Scientific
Revolution))
Galileo Galilei 1630-33
charged with Copernicanism; house arrest
Giordano Bruno
1598-1600
burned
at stake for asserting plurality of worlds
statue erected in Campo dei Fiori 1898 as
anti-clerical
protest after unification of Italy
3) INDEX OF FORBIDDEN BOOKS 1559-1960
4) SOCIETY OF JESUS, OR JESUIT ORDER (S.J.)
founded by Ignatius
Loyola, Spanish
goal is reconversion of
Europe, missionary activity
Rome: Church of Il Gesu
SIXTUS V
1585-90
renovation of city of Rome; broad streets, fountains,
trident formation at northern entrance, Porta del Popolo,
obelisks
Link to more information on obelisks
FROM SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION TO ENLIGHTENMENT: 17-18TH C.
I. SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 16th-17th C: Laws of Nature as mathematical, observable
"Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night;
God said, ‘Let Newton be!’ and all was
Light."
from: Alexander Pope, Essay on Man
(1729)
Nicolas Copernicus,
Polish monk 1543 On the revolutions of heavenly sphere
Revolutionary proposals: heliocentrism
(sun centered), rejects motion of sun
replaces it
with motion of earth, no longer central to universe
Opposition to heliocentrism:
1) common sense (sun rises, sun sets)
2) Scripture:
condemned by Protestants & Catholics alike
3) classical
authority of Ptolemy, ancient Greek astronomy
4) threatens entire Christian cosmology (world
view), sense of order
Galileo Galilei (1584-1642) Astronomy:
popularizer of Copernican system
invention of telescope: qualitatively new data: sees
new stars, moons of Jupiter
1625 Dialogue on Two Chief World Systems:
attack on Ptolemy & Aristotle;
public defense of
Copernican system, charged with Copernican heresy
** 1630-33 trial by Roman Inquisition, required to recant his errors publicly;
says
sotto voce, "Eppure si muove" (But it does move); house arrest in
Florence
Issac Newton 1687 Principia Mathematica:
three laws of motion, inertia & gravity
as common principles underlying all
motion both earthly & heavenly motion;
calculus: mathematical description of motion,
rates of change (not just static)
II. 18th CENTURY ENLIGHTENMENT – progressive intellectual & cultural movement
Themes: natural law, reason, optimism, progress through applied knowledge
rejection of
tradition, custom, religion, authority
Early
Enlightenment: extension of search for immutable "natural laws"
to society and morality; rational, universal
standards opposed to
customs and traditions which differ from
rational order
VOLTAIRE: central figure of French Enlightenment; anti-clerical and Deist
DEISM: philosophical position based on
Creator or "clockmaker" God
who
creates universe, gives it natural laws, but does not interfere
no
miracles, no prayer, no personal devotion; abstract concept of God
ENCYCLOPEDIA: intellectual project of French
philosophes to compile all rational
useful knowledge in one massive, multi-volume compendium; typical of
Later
Enlightenment (after 1750): shift away from search for order and natural laws;
reason
defined in practical, utilitarian terms; dominant theme is
liberty, freedom, self-government (this leads to French Revolution)
CESARE
BECCARIA Italian
exponent of Enlightenment thought; from Milan,
lives under "enlightened absolutism"
of Austrian Hapsburg Empress Maria Theresa
1764 Of Crimes and Punishments: treatise
against death penalty, use of torture
as part of
judicial process; opposed to "cruel & unusual punishments;"
his language
is incorporated into American Constitution, Dostoyevsky
III. POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES OF ENLIGHTENMENT: possible forms of "enlightened" gov’t
ENLIGHTENED
DESPOTISM OR ABSOLUTISM
gov't by "enlightened,"
educated monarch, who legislates for good of society
model in eastern
Europe: Prussia, Austro-Hungarian/Hapsburg Empire (Milan)
CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY
model of English monarchy; government by
King with consent of Parliament;
limited powers of monarch combined with
representation assembly combined to
make this a "reasonable"
approach;
FRENCH REVOLUTION first
government after 1789 is
1789-92
Constitutional Monarchy: Constitution drafted by National
Assembly
1793
execution of King Louis XVI for treason, creation of
French Republic
REPUBLICANISM (government
through elected representatives)
radical, non-monarchical alternative
of American colonies in 1776 Revolution
1792-95
First French Republic influenced by Rousseau, by American
Republic
and
by classical model of ancient Roman Republic
NAPOLEON’S
INVASION OF ITALY 1796-1814
1797 Napoleon's conquest
of Venice, Rome, Pope as prisoner
sets
up Italian kingdoms as part of French Empire
suppresses
the Roman Inquisition in areas conquered
1802 Concordat with Vatican:
restores relationship with Papacy
Coronation
of Napoleon: papal ceremony painted by David
Jacques-Louis DAVID : French painter of the French Revolution using Roman Republican themes
19th C Italian nationalism as reaction against French takeover of Italy by Napoleon