Language is an instrument for communication. The language which can with the greatest ease make the finest and most numerous distinctions of meanings is the best. (C. S. Lewis, Studies in Words)

Graduate writing serves a number of purposes, not the least of which is as a means for you to communicate your ideas and learning to broader audience. In some ways graduate writing is different from other forms of writing, owing to context, content, and purpose; in other ways, whether a novel or a course paper, certain elements of clear writing remain the same.

The following are some generic suggestions which, in my view, serve to enhance the clarity of graduate writing. I have included some illustrative extracts from student work and other sources on a number of the points.

Writer As Guide

The writer always retains responsibility for guiding the reader through a paper. The path through the writer’s ideas and organization of the paper should not be a mystery to the reader. Where you are headed, and where you have been, should be readily apparent to the reader.

How is this accomplished?

a. Include an introduction. Be explicit, tell the reader where you are headed.

Introduction

[example]“Education is a major piece on the political chessboard.” writes John Lowe, an international specialist on educational issues (1992, p. 584). The increasing public visibility of education has made it a major item on the political agenda of most nations. This has certainly been the case in the formation of the European Community, and most recently with the Maastricht Treaty…

[example]"This paper is an attempt to explore the idea of a European dimension in education through a political framework. We will begin with a brief history of the development of that idea as well as changes and revisions that have been made through the years. Though there is no perfect model which reflects the complexity of the political and policy world, the analytic framework which we will use to examine this policy is Easton’s systems model… "(Ana Elfers)

b. Include a conclusion. This provides you, as writer, with a chance to make sure that the reader hears your major points one more time. A brief conclusion acts as an abstract and reminds readers where you have taken them through the paper.

[example] VIII. Conclusions:

"This paper has discussed three models that people have used to view the politics of student expression. I have presented findings from four court cases. Brown v. Board of Education moved the federal government into the school arena to promote social ends… Public schools protect students’ rights to learn, and students’ rights to free expression. I have attempted to outline some implications of this model, within the framework of these court cases: professional judgment, in loco parentis, and a fostering of student expression and education…" (John Williams)

c. Utilize section headings or some form of outline to indicate the organization of thought. Section headings act as “road signs” to guide readers and help to illustrate the structure of the paper.

CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION

[examples]

Throughout this paper, I intend to use the literature to assist with conceptual and theoretical clarification. In addition, the analytic intent …

Administrative Theory and Organizational Theory

There are parallels and links between administrative theory and organizational theory that should be clarified. First, the full scope…

Leadership and Definition

A crucial concept in this chapter, and a thread that runs throughout…

or,

VI. The During Research Phase

The during research phase is clearly one of the most crucial, if not challenging (Miles & Huberman, 1984; Yin, 1989). The plan that was used in this study for rigor whilst in the ‘during research phase’, included the following:

•regular examination of the data base during data collection.

•review of the central questions of the study as a means for guiding the data collection.

•development of possible models to represent and describe headteacher conceptions.

•consistent preparation of analysis memos as a means to interact with the data

•on-going review of literature and theory base

•presentation of developing conclusions and observations to supervisor and colleagues…

VII. The Final Analysis Phase

The final analysis phase of the research retained a number of the characteristics…

e. Referencing. Your consultation of other literature needs to be apparent to the reader.

Referencing your work helps the reader to understand how you see your ideas fitting into a broader context. In all cases, relevance should supersede quantity. If you cite someone else’s work it should be to support a point you are making, to contextualize your argument, or to disagree with the conclusions of the other writer. Referencing serves as a means for assuring the reader that you are a critical inquirer and that you have taken the time to ground your ideas within the broader marketplace of ideas.

[example] "Using McGivney’s description, in Stage I “political decisions are primarily the result of linkages between state politicians and local school board members and superintendents… power is at the local level” (Spring, 1993, p. 121). However, in Washington, Stage I is taking on a new form, the “local level” is being redefined as the school. Power is skirting the board and superintendent and is directly entering the schoolhouse." (Jan Zuber)

Referencing is another point at which you fulfill your responsibility to guide the reader by being a professional informant. As a reader, there have been many times that I have been alerted to an important work, or a source of interest through student writing.

Structural Components

a. Number your pages. This is especially helpful if the pages become separated, but can also make it easier to give you feedback.

b. Spacing. Provide lots of white space for the reader to comment. Space and a half or double space should be standard (except for long quotes). A margin of at least an inch should be maintained on all sides (1.5 inches on left margin if you bind the edge). If you wish to have a clean copy, it is helpful to retain a separate copy for that purpose.

c. Referencing. It is an ethical obligation and professional courtesy to identify whose ideas you are interacting with and which of their work is being considered. Graduate writing is often about interacting with ideas, hence, the imperative for citing other sources. Regarding form, the essential point is consistency. APA* is the recommended referencing form.

Acker, S. (1990). Teacher’s culture in an English primary school: Continuity and change. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 11(3), 257-273.

Adelman, G., Jenkins, D., & Kemmis, S. (1984). Rethinking case study. In J. Bell, T. Bush, A. Fox, J. Goodey, & S. Goulding (Eds.), Conducting small-scale investigations in educational management (pp. 93-102). London: Paul Chapman.

Alexander, G. C. (1992, April). The transformation of an urban principal: Uncertain times, uncertain roles. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 348 461)

Argyris, C., & Schön, D. A. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. 1997a, August 13. A framework for excellence: Improving education in Washington State. [On-line]. Available Internet: http://www.wa.gov/ospi/contents.htm *(1994) Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (4th ed.). Washington D.C: American Psychological Association.

d. As mentioned earlier, use bullets, bold headings, etc. to structure your paper and highlight your points.

Many word processing programs, such as Microsoft WORD, have outlining features which can be very helpful for formatting headings and style.

e. A guide to assignment lengths.

The central goal in assignment length is long enough to complete the task, to make the point, to cover the topic, or ground an argument. Concise writing is more effective.

However, if you are considering length. The following is a rough guide:

2000 words = 4 1/2 pages at 1.5 spacing, 12 point Times text; 3 pages of single space

5000 words = 11 1/2 pages at 1.5 spacing, 12 point Times text; 7 1/2 pages of single space Notes: