TEK and Resource Management

Question

What do you think about the use of TEK in contemporary resource management? Do you think TEK can contribute to conservation or sustainable resource use? If so, in what ways? Do you know of specific cases where TEK has been used in resource management (successes or failures)?

What literature would you recommend on the subject?

Regards: Kathy and Jamie

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Responses

From: Alan White

For the marine and coastal realm, TEK is being combined with more western or modern approaches to coastal management in the Pacific, Indonesia and to limited extent in the Philippines where I work. There are many examples of development projects trying to build on a foundation of TEK in a manner which strengthens the resource management and conservation aspects of TEK in a present legal and institutional framework. The literature is quite extensive on this but a good start are papers and a book by Charles Zerner which focuses on the "Sasi" system in eastern Indonesia. In my own experience in the Philippines, most of the more traditional approaches to marine resource management, to the extent that they existed in the past, have broken down and are overrun with a tragedy of the commons, destructive fishing, overfishing, crowding etc. This is not to say that some communities do not possess some traditional understanding of their ecosystems and resources systems. Individuals often display a tremendous knowledge of coral reef processes, spawning patterns, locations, seasonal cycles etc. but the general pressure on these people to survive means they no longer act on their knowledge and simply follow the norm of scratching out a living using whatever means. There are certainly exceptions in the Philippines where communities have banded together to manage and protect their coastal resources. Some of the management scheme is based on TEK and what community elders knew to be correct when they were young and before their marine systems were overwhelmed with fishing pressure and use of destructive gear. These newly formed community-based systems are working but it is a stretch of the imagine to say they are wholly based on TEK. It is more appropriate to say the TEK had some role in forming the management scheme and maybe in helping encourage the community to band together to mange their resources. From our Philippine experience, it is clear that more remote and isolated communities tend to band together into management groups more easily than more urbanized and diverse groups. Of course there are many ways to explain this difference and TEK may only be one small piece of the puzzle. The rural Philippines is quickly joining the global village of television and radio and written media, shopping malls, movies and every other influence we can imagine. Their use of TEK, to the extent it exists, will be inherently practical to help them meet their daily food and income needs . The hope is that some the of the traditional knowledge and ways will still prove useful and endure to the benefit of there quickly changing societies-whether they are on small islands in remote areas or more urban communities with similar livelihoods and desires.

From: Nancy Turner

I feel like I'm running to catch a train that has moved out of the station and is already well on its journey. I've been fascinated by the answers and discussion about Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Wisdom thus far, and feel slightly guilty at not having jumped in far earlier. I was unaware of the origins of the acronym, so it was good to get Darrell's information on that. I think I first heard about TEK from the Williams and Baines book, Traditional Ecological Knowledge/ Wisdom for Sustainable Development (including Gene Hunn's chapters), which I have used in my ethnobotany class readings. The other books I have on my shelf that focus on this topic are: LORE: Capturing Traditional Environmental Knowledge, edited by Martha Johnson; Traditional Ecological Knowledge. Concepts and Cases, edited by Julian T. Inglis, and Traditional Knowledge and Renewable Resource Management in Northern Regions, edited by Milton Freeman and Ludwig Carbyn. There are a number of other wonderful books that present discussions of traditional knowledge, including those of many of the participants in this discussion!

As a participant in the Scientific Panel for Sustainable Forest Practices in Clayoquot Sound, together with 13 other "western-trained scientists" and four Nuu-Chah-Nulth cultural specialists, including Dr. Richard Atleo (who has a Ph.D. in Education, as well as his traditional training and perspectives), I found the concept to Traditional Ecological Knowledge as another "way of knowing," perfectly valid and workable, to be very helpful. The scientists on the panel were open and receptive and respectful of the Nuu-Chah-Nulth panel members, and their knowledge and experience was highly beneficial - actually critical - to the success of the panel's work and recommendations. We had to acknowledge that the Nuu-Chah-Nulth perspective was completely infused with spirituality and the recognition of spirit and power and one-ness in all things, since all things are made by the Creator. This is not subscribed to by western science, but in many ways, the two different "methods" used to arrive at conclusions were seen to lead to the same ends. I like to use the example I learned from Nancy Maryboy, who is a Dene (Navajo) teacher and ethnobiologist. She told us at an Ethnobiology Conference once that the Dene name for Star is "my ancient ancestor from whom I come." As she told us this, I could hear the words of Carl Sagan, that eloquent astronomer, now passed away, "We are all star-stuff!" There is really very little difference between these two concepts; the basic oneness of humans with the universe is what is reflected.

Now, to the latest question: I think TEK, or whatever one wants to call it, is not only useful in "resource management" (I really don't like to use those words - as if WE could "manage" Nature!), but essential. There is much wisdom, as well as practical information embodied in traditional knowledge. Not only that, but, as was pointed out long ago by Gene Hunn and many others, I'm sure, the ways knowledge is passed on are really important, and we could learn tremendously from them. We don't, in our western, techno-society, spend enough time telling stories, or identifying the entities of the natural world and giving them names, or going out and "learning by doing". We don't have enough ceremonies in which information is publicly and formally presented with witnesses present to acknowledge and learn. Think of the way children are taught in many land-based societies. They go out with their grannies, their aunties, or some special relative; they watch, they listen, they help, and they take part in whatever is happening. Think of the way most of our kids are learning, sitting in a desk in a classroom with artificial lights and computers (like I'm doing right now!). They probably are not living with their grannies and grandads, and probably don't get to spend much time with them. We need more "apprentice-style learning"; we need more long-term familiarity with one place, so we can really get to know it and love it, and feel a part of it.

I think the Clayoquot Scientific Panel Recommendations are a good start towards implementing forest practices that incorporate and respect First Peoples' knowledge and interests, but there is a long way to go before all of the recommendations are actually implemented, even though the B.C. government committed itself to implementing all of them.

Well, I'll be off now. I want to thank you, Kathy and Jamie, for undertaking this most interesting "conference", and to thank all of you out there whose answers have enriched my thinking and appreciation of the topic.

Have a really good Christmas season!

Best, Nancy

From: Patricia Cochran

Dr. Kawagley said it far better than I ever could, so I attach his article, which you may choose to share or not.

Patricia

AN ALLIANCE BETWEEN HUMANS AND CREATURES

By: Angayuqaq Oscar Kawagley, Ph. D., University of Alaska Fairbanks

Basic philosophical questions are raised in the course of observing and questioning people with respect to notions of inquiry, explanation, technology, science, and religion, as they relate to particular lifeways. Accordingly, world view as discussed here will attempt to answer the questions deftly set out by Barry Lopez. Lopez refers to "metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics and logic-which pose, in order, the following questions. What is real? What can we understand? How should we behave? What is beautiful? What are the patterns we can rely upon?" (1986:202). Added to the above list will be "ontology:" Why are we? Is there something greater than the human? Lopez goes on to point out, "The risk we take is of finding our final authority in the metaphors rather than in the land. To inquire into the intricacies of a distant landscape, then, provokes thoughts about one's own interior landscape, and the familiar landscapes of memory. The land urges us to come around to an understanding of ourselves" (247).

The concept of "worldview" is very closely related to the definitions of culture and cognitive map (Berger, Berger, & Kellner 1974:148). A worldview consists of the principles we acquire to make sense of the world around us. These principles, including values, traditions, and customs, are learned by youngsters from myths, legends, stories, family, community, and examples set by community leaders (Deloria, 1991, Hardwick, 1991). The worldview, or cognitive map, is a summation of coping devices which have worked in the past, and may or may not be as effective in the present (Netting, 1986). Once a worldview has been formed, the people are then able to identify themselves as a unique people. Thus, the worldview enables its possessors to make sense of the world around them, make artifacts to fit their world, generate behavior, and interpret their experiences. As with many other indigenous groups, the worldviews of the traditional Alaska Native peoples have worked well for their practitioners for thousands of years (Kawagley, 1995).

Native ways of knowing imply action, states of knowing that entail constant flux of doing. The universe and Mother Earth are constantly changing. If we are looking at and trying to make sense of the world in which we live, we must speak of it as an active process. So our Alaska Native words describe pieces of activity (Roszak, Gomes, & Kanner, 1992 ). The Native words are sound symbols garnered from nature which then lend themselves to reality defining itself. The English words used to describe nature merely define nature and supplant reality. The scientific objectivity allows looking at things in nature and then as commodities to be used and exploited without regard to its habitat and niche in the ecological system. The institutions of higher learning teach us to look at things for in-depth detailed knowledge in a fragmentary approach. It allows us to develop technology to hasten our extraction of minerals, deforestation and agriculture. We are not mindful of the carrying capacity of the land and its ability to regenerate. Our affluence as industrial nations is merely a borrowed affluence. Borrowed from countries like Ghana, Philippines, Columbia, China, and India, to name a few. Our technological prowess and its concomitant concepts of growth and development and that the whole is the sum of its parts (Mills, 1997) has brought us to the brink of disaster. I quote the following poem from Elisabeth Hermodsson (Mills, 1997):

once upon a time
we were to be pitied
we were in mortal fear
we believed in spirits, gnomes
god and other kinds of superstition
now we feel safe for we know everything
control everything
we have rational explanations
for everything
we make use of matterís minutest particle
for our purposes
and we are much to be pitied
more than ever before
never has space been closer
never has responsibility been greater
never have we known more fear
and we do not believe in good or evil powers
nor in gods and other superstitutions
we believe in ourselves
and never has space been wider
and never have we had greater power
and never have we been more powerless
we believe in progress
and never has catasrophe been so close
(Mills, 1997)

We certainly have a totalitarian and dehumanizing technological system. And, most certainly, as a Native people, we have been unable to evaluate our satisfaction with the technological gadgets and tools that have been given or forced upon us by this all consuming giant. Its technocratic society questions the maintenance of our Native languages, subsistence, ways of knowing, and Native rights to an education befitting our worldviews. But it espouses, through lip service and pronouncements, multiculturalism but which many of its members deem evil. I don't remember the source of the following quote but: To much think about whiteman, no more can find dream. We have become to aware of the materialistic and scientific sophistry with its inherent ability to obfuscate who we are, what we are, and where we are going. After this vitriolic attack, I now get to the subject of my talk.

I have enclosed a diagram [note: the diagram did not make it over email] which I call the tetrahedral metaphor of the Native worldview. I have drawn a circle representing the universe or circle of life. The circle represents togetherness which has no beginning and no end. On this circle are represented the human, natural and spiritual worlds. There are two way arrows between them as well as to the worldview at the apex of the tetrahedral. These two way arrows depict communications between all these functions to maintain balance. The Yupiat say Yuluni pitalkertugluni, Living a life that feels just right. One has to be in constant communications with each of the processes to know that one is in balance. If the feeling is that something is wrong then one must be able to check to see what might be the cause for unease or dis-ease. If the feeling of being just right comes instinctively and this feeling permeates your whole being, then you have attained balance. This means that one does not question the other functions intellectually, but that one merges spiritually and emotionally with the others. The circle brings all into one mind. In the Yupiat thought world, everything of Mother Earth possesses a spirit. This spirit is consciousness, an awareness. So the wind, river, rabbit, amoeba, star, lily, and so forth possess a spirit.

Thus, if all possess a spirit/soul, then all possess consciousness and the power that it gives to its physical counterpart. It allows the Native person to have the ability to have the aid of the spirit to do extraordinary feats of righting unbalanced individual psyche, community disease, or loss of communication with the spiritual and natural world through unreverence toward beings of Nature. Harry Robinson (Robinson, 1992) calls this "nature power," the life-sustaining spirituality. Dr. Grof refers to "power animals" (Grof, 1993) which gives its possessor the power to communicate with them, adopting aspects of their wisdom or power, and re-establishing links with them when the connection has been lost through negligence or lack of reverence, or by offending either the animal spirits or one of the greater spirits of the natural world. These are not available through Western scientific research methods but only through the ancient art of shamanism. From this you can see that when we rely on Western means of research only it is a limiting factor, and this is what our institutions of higher learning espouse and teach. All areas of social and scientific research teach only one way of trying to learn and understand phenomena. Our technological and scientific training imprison the students' minds only to its understandings much to the detriment of the learners who enter the mainstream Western world to become its unerring members of progress and development.

The Alaska Native needed to take lives of animals to live. To give honor, respect, dignity and reciprocation with the animals whose lives were taken, the Native people conceived and put into practice many rituals and ceremonies to communicate with the animal and spiritual beings. These are corroborated through the Alaska Native mythology which are manifestations of fundamental organizing principles that exist within the cosmos, affecting all our lives (Grof, 1993). It then behooves the Alaska Native person to leave something behind such as a piece of dry fish when getting mouse food from the tundra. The mouse food is gathered in the early fall so that the mouse and its family will have opportunity to collect more food for the winter. The seal when caught is given a drink of water so that its spirit will not be thirsty when it travels to the animal spiritual kingdom. This is done to show respect to the animal for having shared and given its life to the hunter. Medicinal plants are gathered respectfully knowing full well its power to heal. It is also to recognize that these were given freely by Nature and that requires that we share these freely. The Alaska Native person is aware that if we do not use these gifts of Nature regularly, mindfully and respectfully, they will begin to diminish through disuse or misuse. Earth, air, water, fire and spirit must always be in balance. Its elements and creatures have an important niche to play in the ecological system. With this concept in mind, it then requires that we carefully examine the lifestyles and technology that is extant in this world. Our lifestyles have become materialistic and given to technological devices and gadgets galore that are not geared to sustainability. Our modern cities with their network of buildings, transportation, communications, goods and services distribution centers are destructive and given to conformity. Likewise, the studies of natural resources are given to conformity. They are approached in a fragmentary way such as an expert in harbor seals does not know what the expert in herring fish is doing or has discovered. This type research is geared for objectifying the species studied for commercial purposes and not for sustaining Mother Earth.

In the Western world of science and technology exist many alternative approaches that are nature-friendly and sustainable. They await the time when the global societies evolve from consumerism and materialism to ones that are oriented to conservation and regeneration.

Perhaps, now it might be proper to begin to use the traditional ecological knowledge as a strange attractor to being the platform for the scientific data to be used to bring meaning and understanding to the mountains of data on a few objective phenomena in a vast spectrum of possible knowledge. I advance this knowing that wonder drugs of a generation ago are producing resistant bacteria, that our aseptic hospitals are generating iatrogenic diseases, that we are losing agricultural lands at a terrific pace, deforestation is accelerating and global warming are facts of today. I, as a Yupiaq taught in a traditional and Eurocentric way, worry about my six, soon to be seven, grandchildren, and the legacy that I will leave behind for them. Will they be able to enjoy the biological diversity and the freedom that I had growing up in a traditional Yupiaq household and village? Will they experience starvation and want because the carrying capacity of the lands has been atrociously outpaced? This behooves all of us to rethink what our sciences objectification and commodification of natural resources has lead, to the verge of catastrophe. To have the ways of learning converge to give new direction for living, regeneration, cooperation and sharing seem to be the pathway to a vision of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.

Thank you.

Kawagley, A. Oscar, 1995, A Yupiaq Worldview: A pathway to ecology and spirit. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press, Inc.

Mills, Stephanie, editor, 1997, Turning Away From Technology. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

Robinson, Harry with Wendy Wickwire, 1992, NATURE POWER: In the Spirit of an Okanagan storyteller. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Roszak, T., Gomes, M., Kanner, A., eds., 1995, Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth, healing the mind. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

Grof, Stanislav, M.D., 1993, The HOLOTROPIC MIND: The three levels of human consciousness and how they shape our lives. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.

From: RE Johannes

TEK question #5. There can be no doubt whatsoever that TEK is invaluable in much tropical marine resource management. One example:

The most widely discussed precautionary measure used in tropical nearshore resource management is the marine protected area (MPA). We could improve upon the design and implementation of many such reserves in the following way. It is often said by proponents of MPAs that their prime objective is to protect critical spawning stock biomass. Clearly, for this reason, the boundaries of coastal marine reserves should, wherever practical, encompass important spawning aggregation sites.

Moreover, the presence of an important spawning aggregation site should, in some cases, be justification in itself for the establishment of a marine reserve. Many reef fish spawning aggregation, along with the fisheries they supported, have been obliterated in the Caribbean and the Indo-Pacific because of overfishing - the fish are far more vulnerable in these aggregations than at other times and places. Yet, the literature suggests that spawning aggregation sites were seldom given any consideration when the boundaries of most tropical marine reserves were drawn. Some colleagues and I are trying to change that.

Conventional fisheries data are not essential to set up such reserves. All that is needed is information on timing and location of important spawning aggregations (often well known to local fishermen [gender intentional]) and the perception of these fishermen that these aggregations are threatened. More than 20 different authors have acknowledged in their publications that it was fishermen who directed them to these aggregations; fishermen are almost invariably there ahead of biologists.

Colleagues Lyle Squire, Yvonne Sadovy and Tom Graham and I have been working with fishermen in a number of countries in the past several years in order to help protect these aggregations, especially from the depredations of outsiders involved in the live reef food fish trade. In the absence of TEK, locating these aggregations in time and space would be almost as hard as needle-finding in haystacks.

Bob Johannes

Reference:

Johannes, R.E. 1998. The case for data-less marine resource management: examples from tropical nearshore fisheries. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13: 243-246.

Related references:

Johannes, R. E. 1994. The science of Pacific island peoples and marine resource management. pp. 81-89 In: Proc. Conference on the Science of the Pacific Island Peoples. University of the South Pacific. Suva, Fiji

Johannes, R. E. 1993. Integrating traditional ecological knowledge and management with environmental impact assessment. pp. 33-40 In: Inglis, J. T. (ed.) Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Concepts and Cases. Ottawa, International Program on Traditional Ecological Knowledge and International Development Research Centre.

From: Daniel Clément

I think TEK in relation to contemporary resource management can be divided in two if not more separate aspects: TEK in relation to res. management per se but also TEK and environmental impact assessments (EIS ) which is a subdivision of the former. In Canada, it is mandatory since the beginning of the 1990s to include Aboriginal Knowledge in these assessments so as to have local data in order, further down the line, to help monitoring the impacts and, hence, better manage the resources. I will therefore treat the two aspects separately.

1. EIS

There are several cases in Canada where Aboriginal knowledge has been with more or less success incorporated in EIS. The first renown case is the BHP Diamonds Inc. Mining project in the Northwest Territories (1995) and there has been a lot of debate in journals on the pertinence to include such knowledge (Howard and Widdowson 1996, 1997; Berkes and Henley 1997; Stevenson 1997). There is some literature on the inclusion of the local Native knowledge in EIS (e.g. Stevenson 199) but in a lot of cases you have to check the EIS themselves (e.g. BHP 1995). The headoffice of these environmental assessment processes in Canada is in Hull: Canadian Environmental Assessment Research Council (CEARC), Federal Environmental Assessment Review Office, Process Development Division, 14th Floor, Fontaine Building, 200 Sacré-C^Üur Boulevard, Hull Quebec K1A 0H3 Fax. (819) 994-1469; tel. (819) 953-8591 or 953-0036). There, you can order most of the following "grey" literature on the subject (e.g. Clément 1998, Dene Cultural Institute 1994, MacLachlan et al. 1996, MacPherson and Netro 1994, Weinstein 1996, Williamson 1997, Cole 1992, Dupuis and Leblanc 1995, Emery 1996, RFI 1997, Sadler and Boothroyd 1994, SP Research Associates and Lalonde 1991, Waterhouse 1990).

2. TEK and resource management per se

First, in Canada, there are several cases where Aboriginal Science was used or intended to be used in resource management. Just to cite a few examples: e.g. the bowhead whale and Inuit knowledge (Freeman 1992), management of eider duck and Inuit knowledge (Nakashima 1990, 1991), caribou and TEK in the north (Usher 1993), etc. Second, some "gray" literature exists also on the subject to be found at the same agency cited above (Reichert and Spigelman 1991, Streather 1991). Third, some publications are available in most goog Librairies where you will find as many Canadian as international cases of TEK and resource management: e.g. Wolfe and al. 1992 (for a theoretical approach which to my sense is completely a "political" or "administrative" view); the classic Inglis 1993; a recent book on Aboriginal Knowledge in the North where some cases in Greenland are presented (Sejersen 1992; Roepstroff 1998); also other cases in Freeman and Carbyn 1988. Fourth, complete bibliography on the subject exist (Andrews 1988; De La Barre and De La Barre 1993a,b). Fifth, in Canada, some researchers are renown for their special contributions to the field namely, in the case of Dene People (Johnson 1992; Johnson and Ruttan 1993); and for the Cree People (Feit 1987, 1988, 1998). Sixth, internationally, you are surely aware of the collection of the UNESCO People and Plans Working Group; they have published many case studies (e.g. Aumeeruddy 1994, Cunningham and Mbenkum 1993). Finally, other publications are also known worldwide (e.g. Johannes 1989; Williams and Baines 1993) where you will find also case studies (e.g. Dahl 1989). The bibliography that follows includes a few other pertinent titles.

Bibliography

Andrews, Thomas A., 1988.- "Selected Bibliography of Native Resource Management Systems and Native Knowledge of the Environment", in Milton M.R. Freeman and L. N. Carbyn (eds.), Traditional Knowledge and Renewable Resource Management in Northern Regions, Edmonton, Canadian Circumpolar Institute, pp. 105-124.

Aumeeruddy, Y., 1994.- Local representations and management of agroforests on the periphery of Kerinci Seblat National Park Sumatra, Indonesia, Paris, UNESCO, People and Plants Working Paper No. 3, 46 p.

Berkes, Fikret and Thomas Henley, 1997.- "Co-management and traditional knowledge: Threat or Opportunity?", Policy Options/Options Politiques, March, pp. 29-31.

BHP Diamonds Inc. and DIA MET Minerals Ltd., 1995.- NWT Diamonds Project Environmental Impact Statement, Summary + 4 vols.

Bielawski, E., 1992.- Inuit Indigenous Knowledge and Science in the Arctic, Northern Perspectives 20 (1), pp. 5-8.

Brooke, L.F., 1993.- The Participation of Indigenous Peoples and the Application of Their Environmental and Ecological Knowledge in the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, vol.1, Ottawa, Inuit Circumpolar Conference, 119 p.

Clément, D., 1998.- Innuat Utashinimuau: The Innu People's Rock. An Overviw of Innu Knowledge of the Land With Special Reference to the Voisey's Bay Mine/Mill Project Site, Prepared fir Innu Nation, 168 p.

Cole, D., 1992.- A Rapid Rural Appraisal Method of Research: Traditional Ecological Knowledge Use Among the Naskapi of Northeastern Quebec, Hull, Canadian Environmental Assessment Research Council (CEARC), Mimeo, 30 p.

Cunningham, A.B., 1993 and Mbenkum, F.T., 1993.- Sustainability of Harvesting Prunus africana bark in Cameroon, Paris, UNESCO, People and Plants Working Paper No. 2, 28 p.

Dahl, Arthur Lyon, 1989.- "Traditional Environmental Knowledge and Resource Management in new Caledonia" in R.E. Johannes (ed..), Traditional Ecological Knowledge: A Collection of Essays, Gland et Cambridge, IUCN, pp. 57-66.

De La Barre, K. and S. De La Barre, 1993a.- The Participation of Indigenous Peoples and the Application of Their Environmental and Ecological Knowledge in the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, vol. 2, A Selected and Annotated Bibliography, Ottawa, Inuit Circumpolar Conference, 101 p., 45 p., 15 p.

De La Barre, K. and S. de La Barre, 1993b.- The Participation of Indigenous Peoples and the Application of Their Environmental and Ecological Knowledge in the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, vol. 2, A Selected and Annotated Bibliography, Ottawa, Inuit Circumpolar Conference, 101 p., 45 p., 15 p.

Dene Cultural Institute, 1994.- "Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Environmental Impact Assessment", in Barry Sadler and Peter Boothroyd (eds.), Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Environmental Impact Assessment, Hull, Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency, pp. 5-19.

Dupuis, S. and P. LeBlanc, 1995.- Bibliography on Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and Environmental Assessment (EA), Draft, Hull, Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency (CEAA), Mimeo, 15 p.

Emery, A.R., 1996.- The Participation of Indigenous Peoples and their Knowledge in Environmental Assessment and Development Planning, s.l., Centre for Traditional Knowledge, Mimeo, 59 p.

Feit, H.A., 1987.- "Waswanipi Cree Management of Land and Wildlife: Cree Cultural Ecology Revisited", in B.C. Coc (ed.), Native Peoples: Native Lands, Ottawa, Carleton University Press, pp. 75-91.

Feit, H.A., 1988.- "Self-management and state-management: forms of knowing and managing northern wildlife", in M.M.R. Freeman and L.N. Carbyn (eds.), Traditional Knowledge and Renewable Resource Management, Edmonton, Boreal Institute for Northern Studies, pp. 72-91.

Feit, H.A., 1998.- "Reflections on local knowledge and institutionalized resource management: Differences, dominance and decentralization", in Louis-Jacques Dorais, Murielle Nagy and Ludger Müller-Wille (eds.), Aboriginal Environmental Knowledge in the North, Québec, GÉTIC, pp. 123-148.

Freeman, M.M.R., 1992.- The Nature and Utility of Traditional Ecological Knowledge, Northern Perspectives 20 (1), pp. 9-12.

Freeman, M.M.R. and L.N. Carbyn (eds.), 1988.- Traditional Knowledge and Renewable Resource Management, Edmonton, Boreal Institute for Northern Studies, 124 p.

Grenier, Louise, 1998.- Working with Indigenous Knowledge: A Guide for Researchers, Ottawa, International Development Research Centre, 115 p.

Gunn, A., G. Arlooktoo and D. Kaomayak, 1988.- "The contribution of ecological knowledge of Inuit to wildlife management in the Northwest Territories", in M.M.R. Freeman and L.N. Carbyn (eds.), Traditional Knowledge and Renewable Resource Management, Edmonton, Boreal Institute for Northern Studies, pp. 22-29.

Howard, Albert and Frances Widdowson, 1996.- "Traditional Knowledge Threatens Environmental Assessment", Policy Options/Options Politiques, November, pp. 34-36.

Howard, Albert and Frances Widdowson, 1997.- "Revisiting Traditional Knowledge", Policy Options/Options Politiques, April, pp. 46-48.

Inglis, J. (ed.), 1993.- Traditional Ecological Knowledge. Concepts and Cases, Ottawa, Canadian Museum of Nature et International Development Research Centre, 142 p.

Inglis, J. (ed.), 1994.- Traditional Knowledge in Tropical Environments, Nature & Resources 30 (1), pp. 1-37.

Inglis, J. (ed.), 1994.- Traditional Knowledge into the Twenty-First Century, Nature & Resources 30 (2), pp. 1-28.

Johnson, M., 1992.- Lore. Capturing Traditional Environmental Knowledge, Dene Cultural Institute et International Development Research Centre, 190 p.

Johnson, M. and R.A. Ruttan, 1993.- Traditional Dene Environmental Knowledge. A Pilot Project Conducted in Ft. Good Hope and Colville Lake, N.W.T. 1989-1993, Hay River, N.W.T., Dene Cultural Institute, 309 p.

MacLachlan, Letha et al., 1996.- NWT Diamonds Project. Report of the Environmental Assessment Panel, Hull, Minister of Supply and Services Canada, Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency, 88 p.

MacPherson, Nancy and Gladys Netro, 1994.- "Community Impact Assessment and Old Crow, Yukon", in Barry Sadler and Peter Boothroyd (eds.), Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Environmental Impact Assessment, Hull, Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency, pp. 31-40.

Nakashima, Douglas, 1990.- Application of Native Knowledge in EIA: Inuit, Eiders and Hudson Bay Oil, Ottawa, Canadian Environmental Assessment Research Council, 29 p.

-, 1991.- The Ecological Knowledge of Belcher Island Inuit: A Traditional Basis for Contemporary Wildlife Co-management, Ph. D. Dissertation, Montreal, McGill University, Department of Geography, 369 p.

Reichert, P. and M. Spigelman, 1991.- International Workshop on Indigenous Knowledge and Community-Based Resource Management: A Workshop Report, Hull, Canadian Environmental Assessment Research Council (CEARC), Mimeo, 20 p.

Resource Futures International (RFI), 1997.- Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Environmental Assessment: An Annotated Bibliography, Hull, Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency, Mimeo, 57 p.

Roepstroff, Andreas, 1998.- "Virtual Stocks, Experts and Knowledge Traditions: The Circulation of Knowledge on Greenland Halibut", in Louis-Jacques Dorais, Murielle Nagy and Ludger Müller-Wille (eds.), Aboriginal Environmental Knowledge in the North, Québec, GÉTIC, pp. 95-122.

Sadler, B. and P. Boothroyd (eds.), 1994.- Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Environmental Impact Assessment, Hull, Canadian Environmental Assessment Research Council (CEARC), Mimeo, 75 p.

Schultes, R.E., 1992.- "The Importance of Ethnobotany in Environmental Conservation, Environmental Awareness, 15: 133 (also in American Journal of Economics and Sociology 53 (2) pp. 202-206).

Sejersen, Frank, 1998.- "Hunting in Greenland and the Integration of Local Users' Knowledge in Management Strategies", in Louis-Jacques Dorais, Murielle Nagy and Ludger Müller-Wille (eds.), Aboriginal Environmental Knowledge in the North, Québec, GÉTIC, pp. 37-60.

SP Research Associates and Lalonde, A., 1991.- Integrating Indigenous Knowledge and Western Scientific Knowledge in Community-Based Resource Management: A Selected Bibliography, Hull, Canadian Environmental Assessment Research Council (CEARC), Mimeo, 31 p.

Stevenson, Marc J., 1996.- "Indigenous Knowledge in Environmental Assessment", Arctic, 49 (3): 278-291.

Stevenson, Marc J., 1997.- "Ignorance and Prejudice Threaten Environmental Assessment", Policy Options/Options Politiques, March, pp. 34-36.

Streather, A., 1991.- International Workshop on Indigenous Knowledge and Community-Based Resource Management: A Summary, Hull, Canadian Environmental Assessment Research Council (CEARC), Mimeo, 12 p.

Usher, Peter J., 1993.- "The Beverly-Kaminuriak Caribou Management Board: An Experience in Co-Management" in J. Inglis (ed.), Traditional Ecological Knowledge. Concepts and Cases, Ottawa, Canadian Museum of Nature et International Development Research Centre, 142 p.

Waterhouse, P., 1990.- Report on the Application of Computer Technologies to Community-Based Environmental Impact Assessment in the Inuvialuit Settlement, Hull, Canadian Environmental Assessment Research Council (CEARC), Mimeo.

Weinstein, Martin, 1996.- Traditional Knowledge, Impact Assessment, and Environmental Planning: A Paper Prepared for the Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency's BHP Diamond Mine Environmental Assessment Panel, Comox, B.C., M.S. Weinstein Consulting Services, 12 p.

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